Changes

For cats, cis-linoleic and arachidonic acid are essential fatty acids. However, other fatty acids, specifically long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are essential for normal development<ref>Innis, S.M. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr 2007:137:855-9</ref>.  DHA and EPA have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects<ref>Serini, S., Bizzarro, A., Piccioni, E., Fasano, E., Rossi, C., Lauria, A., Cittadini, A.R., Masullo, C., Calviello, G. (2012) EPA and DHA differentially affect in vitro inflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Alzheimer's patients. Curr Alzheimer Res. 9(8):913-23.</ref><ref>Weldon, S.M., Mullen, A.C., Loscher, C.E., Hurley, L.A., Roche, H.M. (2007) Docosahexaenoic acid induces an anti-inflammatory profile in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. J Nutr Biochem. 18(4):250-8.</ref><ref>Mullen, A., Loscher, C.E., Roche, H.M. (2010) Anti-inflammatory effects of EPA and DHA are dependent upon time and dose-response elements associated with LPS stimulation in THP-1-derived macrophages.. J Nutr Biochem. 21(5):444-50.</ref>.

For cats, cis-linoleic and arachidonic acid are essential fatty acids. However, other fatty acids, specifically long-chain omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are essential for normal development<ref>Innis, S.M. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr 2007:137:855-9</ref>.  DHA and EPA have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects<ref>Serini, S., Bizzarro, A., Piccioni, E., Fasano, E., Rossi, C., Lauria, A., Cittadini, A.R., Masullo, C., Calviello, G. (2012) EPA and DHA differentially affect in vitro inflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Alzheimer's patients. Curr Alzheimer Res. 9(8):913-23.</ref><ref>Weldon, S.M., Mullen, A.C., Loscher, C.E., Hurley, L.A., Roche, H.M. (2007) Docosahexaenoic acid induces an anti-inflammatory profile in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. J Nutr Biochem. 18(4):250-8.</ref><ref>Mullen, A., Loscher, C.E., Roche, H.M. (2010) Anti-inflammatory effects of EPA and DHA are dependent upon time and dose-response elements associated with LPS stimulation in THP-1-derived macrophages.. J Nutr Biochem. 21(5):444-50.</ref>.

There is evidence that high levels of dietary DHA in puppies produces improved cognitive performance in laboratory tests (reversal task learning, visual contrast discrimination, and early psychomotor performance)<ref> Zicker, S.C, Jewell, D.E., Yamka, R.M., et al. Evaluation of cognitive learning, memory, psychomotor, immunologic, and retinal functions in healthy puppies fed foods fortified with docosahexanoeic acid-rich fish oil from 8-52 weeks. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012;241:583-94</ref>. These can be added to the diet as a supplement and may be particularly important in gestation, lactation and post-weaning<ref>Bauer, J.E., Heinemann, K.M., Lees, G.E., et al. Retinal functions of young dogs are improved and maternal plasma phospholipids are altered with diets containing long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation, lactation, and after weaning. J Nutr 2006;1191S-994S</ref>. Further to the already mentioned effects DHA supplementation has been linked to an improved memory, cognitive, psychomotor and immunologic function and better problem-solving skills in puppies<ref>Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E., Docosaheaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006;228:700-6</ref><ref name="Zicker"/>, this is also likely to be applicable to felines.

There is evidence that higher levels of DHA in puppy diets produce improved cognitive performance in laboratory tests (reversal task learning, visual contrast discrimination, and early psychomotor performance)<ref> Zicker, S.C, Jewell, D.E., Yamka, R.M., et al. Evaluation of cognitive learning, memory, psychomotor, immunologic, and retinal functions in healthy puppies fed foods fortified with docosahexanoeic acid-rich fish oil from 8-52 weeks. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012;241:583-94</ref>, and are essential for normal retinal function<ref>Bauer, J.E., Heinemann, K.M., Lees, G.E., et al. Retinal functions of young dogs are improved and maternal plasma phospholipids are altered with diets containing long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation, lactation, and after weaning. J Nutr 2006;1191S-994S</ref> and neurological development. <ref>Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E., Docosaheaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006;228:700-6</ref>

==Behavioural Problems Related to Diet and Their Diagnosis==

==Behavioural Problems Related to Diet and Their Diagnosis==