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<big><center>[[Musculoskeletal System - Anatomy & Physiology|'''BACK TO MUSCULOSKELETAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY''']]</center></big>

<big><center>[[Musculoskeletal System - Anatomy & Physiology|'''BACK TO MUSCULOSKELETAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY''']]</center></big>

==Divisions and Landmarks==

=Divisions and Landmarks=

The common pattern of canine landmarks, according to Dyce, Sack, et al, can be quantified as such:

The common pattern of canine landmarks, according to Dyce, Sack, et al, can be quantified as such:

[[Image:Spinal landmarks.jpg|center|500px|Spinal Landmarks - Copyright Becky Pocock 2008]]

[[Image:Spinal landmarks.jpg|center|500px|Spinal Landmarks - Copyright Becky Pocock 2008]]

==Vertebrae and Joints==

=Vertebrae and Joints=

*Vertebrae consist of a body which encloses the vertebral foramen (through which the spinal cord runs), a spinous process, and a transverse process, as well as articular processes by which they join together

*Vertebrae consist of a body which encloses the vertebral foramen (through which the spinal cord runs), a spinous process, and a transverse process, as well as articular processes by which they join together

*The form of the spinous process varies with respect to species and region

*The form of the spinous process varies with respect to species and region

=Cervical Vertebrae=

==Cervical Vertebrae==

*The first two cervical vertebrae are known as the '''atlas''' and the '''axis''' respectively, and are modified to allow movement of the head

*The first two cervical vertebrae are known as the '''atlas''' and the '''axis''' respectively, and are modified to allow movement of the head

**The atlas has no conventional body: instead it is complsed of two lateral masses joined by dorsal and ventral arches

**The atlas has no conventional body: instead it is complsed of two lateral masses joined by dorsal and ventral arches

*The last (C7) cervical vertebra has a taller spinous process than those proceeding it, and articulates with the first pair of ribs

*The last (C7) cervical vertebra has a taller spinous process than those proceeding it, and articulates with the first pair of ribs

=Thoracic Vertebrae=

==Thoracic Vertebrae==

*Thoracic vertebrae articulate with the ribs

*Thoracic vertebrae articulate with the ribs

*They are distingushed by short bodies with flattened extremities, costal facets, short transverse processes, and prominent spinous processes

*They are distingushed by short bodies with flattened extremities, costal facets, short transverse processes, and prominent spinous processes

*The orientation of spinous processes shifts from caudo- to craniodorsal

*The orientation of spinous processes shifts from caudo- to craniodorsal

=Lumbar Vertebrae=

==Lumbar Vertebrae==

*Longer and more uniform in shape than thoracic vertebrae

*Longer and more uniform in shape than thoracic vertebrae

*Shorter in height, with long, flattened transverse processes that project laterally

*Shorter in height, with long, flattened transverse processes that project laterally

=Sacral Vertebrae=

==Sacral Vertebrae==

*'''Sacrum''': a single bone formed by the fusion of several vertebrae that articulates with the pelvic girdle

*'''Sacrum''': a single bone formed by the fusion of several vertebrae that articulates with the pelvic girdle

*Allows the thrust of the hindlimbs to be transmitted to the trunk

*Allows the thrust of the hindlimbs to be transmitted to the trunk

*Narrows caudally and is curved to present a concave surface to the pelvic cavity

*Narrows caudally and is curved to present a concave surface to the pelvic cavity

=Caudal Vertebrae=

==Caudal Vertebrae==

*Number varies greatly even within species

*Number varies greatly even within species

*Progressive simplification of form

*Progressive simplification of form

==Spinal Cord==

=Spinal Cord=

==Hypaxial and Epaxial Muscles==

=Hypaxial and Epaxial Muscles=