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Biochemical analysis of blood is a useful diagnostic tool. It is often necessary to prioritise the components of a profile because of the small volume of blood sampled from snakes. Consider the following tests.

Biochemical analysis of blood is a useful diagnostic tool. It is often necessary to prioritise the components of a profile because of the small volume of blood sampled from snakes. Consider the following tests.

==Total protein==

==Total protein==

Plasma proteins include albumins (prealbumin and albumin) and globulins (alpha, beta and gamma fractions). Albumin is the principal factor in maintaining the oncotic pressure of blood. Antibodies migrate primarily in the gamma fraction. Protein electrophoresis separates the fractions. In normal reptiles, TP values generally vary between 30–80 g/l. Hypoproteinaemia and hyperproteinaemia are usually indicators of disease. Measurement of TP is an important diagnostic test but perhaps more useful is TP in association with protein electrophoresis. Ranges for protein electrophoresis are becoming available for bird and non-domestic mammal species.

Plasma proteins include [[Albumin|albumins]] (prealbumin and albumin) and globulins (alpha, beta and gamma fractions). [[Albumin|Albumin]] is the principal factor in maintaining the oncotic pressure of blood. Antibodies migrate primarily in the gamma fraction. Protein electrophoresis separates the fractions. In normal reptiles, TP values generally vary between 30–80 g/l. Hypoproteinaemia and hyperproteinaemia are usually indicators of disease. Measurement of TP is an important diagnostic test but perhaps more useful is TP in association with protein electrophoresis. Ranges for protein electrophoresis are becoming available for bird and non-domestic mammal species.

===Hypoproteinaemia===

===Hypoproteinaemia===

Hypoproteinaemia is often associated with malnutrition. Other causes include blood loss, gastrointestinal problems, chronic hepatopathies or chronic renal disease.  Physiological increases, primarily a hyperglobulinaemia, may occur in healthy female reptiles in active folliculogenesis due to the presence of the yolk precursor, vitellin, in the blood.  Following ovulation the protein level returns to normal. Pathological increases in TP are usually associated with either dehydration or hyperglobulinaemia related to inflammatory, primarily infectious, disease. Alpha globulins may increase with tissue necrosis and decrease with severe hepatic disease, malnutrition and malabsorption. Beta globulins may increase with kidney disease.

Hypoproteinaemia is often associated with malnutrition. Other causes include blood loss, gastrointestinal problems, chronic hepatopathies or chronic [[Lizard and Snake Renal Disease|renal disease]].  Physiological increases, primarily a hyperglobulinaemia, may occur in healthy female reptiles in active folliculogenesis due to the presence of the yolk precursor, vitellin, in the blood.  Following ovulation the protein level returns to normal. Pathological increases in TP are usually associated with either dehydration or hyperglobulinaemia related to inflammatory, primarily infectious, disease. Alpha globulins may increase with tissue necrosis and decrease with severe hepatic disease, malnutrition and malabsorption. Beta globulins may increase with kidney disease.

===Protein electrophoresis===

===Protein electrophoresis===

Protein electrophoresis only requires a very small amount of plasma and may give very useful diagnostic data. Presently specific information in reptiles, let alone snakes, is limited. Extrapolation from results in mammals and birds may be of dubious value but early evaluation shows it to be comparable.

Protein electrophoresis only requires a very small amount of plasma and may give very useful diagnostic data. Presently specific information in reptiles, let alone snakes, is limited. Extrapolation from results in mammals and birds may be of dubious value but early evaluation shows it to be comparable.

==Aspartate aminotranferase==

==Aspartate aminotranferase==

Some species may have higher concentrations of [[Aspartate aminotranferase|Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)]] in liver, skeletal muscle and myocardium. AST values are usually less than 250 iu/l.  Increased levels are suggestive of tissue damage, specifically liver or muscle in some species. In association with CP to rule out muscle damage it is a useful test in some species for hepatocellular damage. Generalised diseases, such as trauma, septicaemias and toxaemias, may also elevate AST due to tissues necrosis.

Some species may have higher concentrations of [[Aspartate aminotranferase|Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)]] in liver, skeletal muscle and myocardium. AST values are usually less than 250 iu/l.  Increased levels are suggestive of tissue damage, specifically liver or muscle in some species. In association with CP to rule out muscle damage it is a useful test in some species for hepatocellular damage. Generalised diseases, such as trauma, septicaemias and toxaemias, may also elevate AST due to tissues necrosis.