Changes

==Calcium==

==Calcium==

The majority of the body’s calcium is stored in bone. Blood calcium levels are kept within a tight range by the actions of parathyroid hormone, calcitonin and vitamin D. Blood levels vary between species but generally range between 2–5 mmol/l.  

The majority of the body’s [[Calcium|calcium]] is stored in bone. Blood [[Calcium|calcium]] levels are kept within a tight range by the actions of parathyroid hormone, calcitonin and vitamin D. Blood levels vary between species but generally range between 2–5 mmol/l.  

===Hypercalcaemia===

===Hypercalcaemia===

Hypocalcaemia occurs with imbalances of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D but by comparison to other reptiles this is relatively rare in snakes. Low calcium may be seen with renal failure.  Female reptiles may have increased calcium levels of two to fourfold during times of reproductive activity. Mobilisation from bone results from increased oestrogen activity and calcium levels return to normal after egg laying. Persistently high calcium (and phosphorus) may be normal in indigo snakes. Iatrogenic hypercalcaemia has been reported in captive reptiles and results from excessive dietary or parenteral calcium and vitamin D. Primary hyperparathyroidism, pseudohyperparathyroidism and osteolytic bone lesions could also cause hypercalcaemia but are unlikely to be encountered. Hypercalcaemia may lead to nephrocalcinosis and renal failure.

Hypocalcaemia occurs with imbalances of [[Calcium|calcium]], [[Phosphorus|phosphorus]] and vitamin D but by comparison to other reptiles this is relatively rare in snakes. Low [[Calcium|calcium]] may be seen with renal failure.  Female reptiles may have increased [[Calcium|calcium]] levels of two to fourfold during times of reproductive activity. Mobilisation from bone results from increased oestrogen activity and [[Calcium|calcium]] levels return to normal after egg laying. Persistently high [[Calcium|calcium]] (and [[Phosphorus|phosphorus]]) may be normal in indigo snakes. Iatrogenic hypercalcaemia has been reported in captive reptiles and results from excessive dietary or parenteral [[Calcium|calcium]] and vitamin D. Primary hyperparathyroidism, pseudohyperparathyroidism and osteolytic bone lesions could also cause hypercalcaemia but are unlikely to be encountered. Hypercalcaemia may lead to nephrocalcinosis and renal failure.

*Calcium:Phosphorus ratio <1 - The calcium to phosphorus ratio may reverse with kidney disease. This may be the first indication of renal failure.

*[[Calcium|calcium]]:[[Phosphorus|Phosphorus]] ratio <1 - The [[Calcium|calcium]] to [[Phosphorus|phosphorus]] ratio may reverse with [[Lizard and Snake Renal Disease|kidney disease]]. This may be the first indication of renal failure.

 

==Phosphorus==

==Phosphorus==

The metabolism of phosphorus and its blood levels are closely linked to those of calcium. Most reptiles have a range between 1.0–3.0 mmol/l. Young, growing reptiles may have higher blood phosphorus levels than adults.  

The metabolism of phosphorus and its blood levels are closely linked to those of calcium. Most reptiles have a range between 1.0–3.0 mmol/l. Young, growing reptiles may have higher blood phosphorus levels than adults.