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In the southeastern United States, feeding of sub-optimal Coastal Bermuda hay and lack of administration of the anthelmintic pyrantel pamoate have been implicated as a risk factors.(Little) It is thought this forage contains a high amount of thin fibres which are prematurely swallowed. Sudden feed changes may also be a risk (38). In the UK, infection with the tapeworm [[Anoplocephala|''Anoplocephala perfoliata'']] is an important risk factor. Data suggests that more than 80% of ileal impactions were associated with serological or faecal evidence of tapeworm infection(39). Impaction may also develop secondary to spastic contractions of the ileal musculature against ingesta.<ref name="Merck">Merck & Co (2008) '''The Merck Veterinary Manual (Eighth Edition)''', ''Merial''.</ref>
In the southeastern United States, feeding of sub-optimal Coastal Bermuda hay and lack of administration of the anthelmintic pyrantel pamoate have been implicated as a risk factors.(Little) It is thought this forage contains a high amount of thin fibres which are prematurely swallowed. Sudden feed changes may also be a risk (38). In the UK, infection with the tapeworm [[Anoplocephala|''Anoplocephala perfoliata'']] is an important risk factor. Data suggests that more than 80% of ileal impactions were associated with serological or faecal evidence of tapeworm infection(39). Impaction may also develop secondary to spastic contractions of the ileal musculature against ingesta.<ref name="Merck">Merck & Co (2008) '''The Merck Veterinary Manual (Eighth Edition)''', ''Merial''.</ref>
''Anoplocephala perfoliata'' infects up to 60% of horses in some geographical areas and has been implicated as a risk factor for bowel irritation, ileal impaction, and spasmodic colic.<ref>Kania, S.A, Reinemeyer, C.R (2005) ''Anoplocephala perfoliata'' coproantigen detection: a preliminary study. ''Vet Parasitol'', 127(2):115-9.</ref>
Furthermore, it provides support to the hypothesis that the risk of ileal impaction colic and spasmodic colic thehost IgG(T) response to 12/13 kDa antigens of A. perfoliata increases with tapeworm infection intensity. (Proudman)
==Clinical Signs==
==Clinical Signs==