Myiasis Producing Flies

INSECTA PARASITES

Introduction

Myiasis is the parasitism of living animals by dipteran larvae. Myiasis can be oligatory or facultative (optional) and is described as cutaneous, nasal or somatic.

Oestridae

Warble Fly - Geo. H. Carpenter, Cambridge University Press 1913 - Wikimedia Commons

• The larvae of Oestridae spp. are obligatory parasites

• The three important species of veterinary interest are Hypoderma, Oestrus and Gasterophilus

Hypoderma spp.

• Also known as warble flies

• Important cattle parasites
  • Also parasitise horses, small ruminants and sometimes humans

• The two main species in cattle are H. bovis and H. lineatum

• H. diana parasitises deer

• Infestation is largely confined to the Northern Hemisphere

Recognition

• Large 13-15mm long

• Similar to bumble bees in appearance
  • Yellow abdomen
• Band of black hairs

• One pair of wings

Life Cycle

• Adult flies emerge on warm, sunny days between June and August

• White eggs are laid around the belly and legs of the animal
  • Eggs are attached to hairs by cement and a small terminal clasp
  • H. lineatum lays a whole row of eggs as it approaches the animal stealthily
  • H. bovis only deposits a single egg before the animal runs away ('gadding) as it makes a loud buzzing noise

• The adult lives for 3 weeks

• Females can lay several hundred eggs in their life

• A few days after eggs are laid, larvae emerge and crawl down the hairs into the hair follicles

• Larvae penetrate the skin through wounds made by biting flies

• Larvae migrate through the subcutaneous tissue towards the diaphragm
  • Enzymatic secretions and mouth hooks aids larval migration

• After 3 months larvae reach winter resting sites where they remain from November to Feburary/March whilst moulting to the L2 stage
  • Epidural fat in the spinal canal for H. bovis
  • Wall of the oesophagus for H. lineatum

• Larvae then migrate back to the subcutis along the midline of the back where they bore a breathing hole through the skin and moult to the L3 stage
  • Larvae are palpable as distinct swellings called warbles

• L3 larvae emerge after 4-10 weeks where they fall to the ground and pupate under loose vegetation

• Adult flies emerge from the pupa after one month where they copulate, lay eggs and die within two weeks

• H. lineatum are on the wing 6-8 weeks before H. bovis

• There is only one generation of warble flies per year

Pathogenesis

• Causes myositis

• Production losses
  • Condemnation and down-grading of hides
  • Reduced milk yield and reduced weight gain
  • Injury from stock panic
  • Trimmed meat losses from H. lineatum
    • 'Butcher's Jelly' around warbles which is green due to mass eosinophil attraction

• Paraplegia resulting from:
  • Toxin release
  • Pressure on the spinal cord (H. bovis)
  • Bloat from pressue on the oesophageal wall (H. lineatum)

Control

• Total eradication should be aimed for

• Old methods include popping out warbles
  • But could lead to anaphylactic shock

• Ectoparasiticides
  • Systemic organophosphorus insecticides in pour-on formula
  • Avermectins and milbemycins in pour-on and injectible formulations

• Timing is crucial for treatment
  • Larvae residing in winter resting sites, if killed, can lead to bloat and paraplegia
  • It is safe to treat in the autumn before larvae reach their winter resting sites and in the spring when the warbles have migrated to the midline of the back
  • Ivermectin can be given at any time without risking host infection as larval antigen is released much slower

Legislation in the UK

• 'Warble Fly Order 1978' requires all clinically affected animals to be treated

• Notifiable disease

• 'Warble Fly Infected Area Order 1983'

• For more information on the warble fly orders, see here

Oestrus ovis

• Also known as the sheep nasal bot fly

• Larvae parasitise the nasal chambers of sheep and goats

• Found in most sheep rearing areas of the world

Recognition

• 13-15mm long

• Grey colouring

• Black spots on abdomen

• Clear wings

• Larvae have distinct black bands on each body segment

Life Cycle

• Larvae are squirted into the nostils of sheep in a jet of liquid

• The larvae crawl caudally into the nasal cavity and feed on the nasal mucosa and mature before returning to the nostrils

• Larval development takes up to two months
  • Larvae can overwinter in the nasal cavity if deposited late in the summer

• Once the larvae have developed they are sneezed out and pupate on the ground

• The adult fly emerges one months later

• Adult flies only live for 2-3 weeks

Pathogenesis

• Adult flies can annoyance
  • Interrupts feeding
  • Leads to a decreased weight gain

• Larvae cause nasal irritation, nasal discharge and sneezing
  • Irritate the nasal mucosa with oral hooks and spines causing a viscous exudate to be produced from which they feed
  • Heavy infestations lead to erosion of the bones in the sinuses (turbinate bones)
  • Penetration of the brain leads to false gid (high stepping gait and incoordination)

• Apthology in the nasal cavity

Control

• Systemic insecticides can be used in heavy infestations

• In warmer countries, strategic prophylactic treatment can be used

Gasterophilus spp.

Horse Bot Fly - Dennis Ray - Wikimedia Commons

• Also known as the horse bot fly

• Obligate parasites of equids

• Spend most of lifecycle in equine stomach
  • Cause little pathogenesic significance

• Three important species (in the UK)
  • G. intestinalis which is the most common
  • G. nasalis
  • G. haemorrhoidalis which is rare

• Two other important veterinary species
  • G. nigricornis
  • G. inermis

Recognition

• Medium to large flies at 10-20mm long

• Look similar to drone bumble bees
  • Body covered with dense yellow hair
  • Dark coloured hairs produce a banding pattern

• Clear wings with brown patches

Life Cycle

• Adults are most active in late summer

• Eggs hatch spontaneously or are stimulated to hatch through an increase in warmth and moisture from the animal self-grooming
  • G. intestinalis
    • Creamy-white eggs
    • 1-2mm in length
    • Eggs laid in the hair of the shoulders and fore legs
  • G. nasalis
    • Eggs laid in the intermandibular area
• G. haemorrhoidalis
  • • Eggs laid around the lips

• Larvae crawl into the mouth and penetrate the tissues of the buccal mucosa which takes a few weeks

• Larvae then emerge and are swallowed

• Larvae pass into the stomach and attach to the gastric mucosa
  • Larvae are now known as bots

• Each species attaches to a specific part of the stomach
  • G. intestinalis attaches to the cardiac region
  • G. nasalis attaches to the pylorus

• After 10-12 months in the stomach, the larvae detach and are passed out in the faeces
  • G. haemorrhoidalis attaches to the rectal mucosa before being passed out

• Larvae pupate on the ground

• Adults hatch after 1-2 months and survive for a few days up to two weeks
  • Adults have non-functional mouthparts so cannot feed

• There is only one generation per year in temperate regions of the world

Pathogenesis

• Adult cause annoyance when egg laying
  • Disturbance and panic can ensue

• Larvae cause a marked inflammatory reaction when attached to the gastric mucosa
  • Ring like thickening around the base of each attached larvae

• Large numbes of larvae may interfere with the passage of food and action of the sphincters

• G. haemorrhoidalis can cause mild irritation to the rectal wall
  • Host reaction to larvae in the mouth is minimal

Control

• Treatment of horses with insecticides over winter
  • Breaks the life cycle as all the population are present as bots in the stomach

• If eggs are present in late summer, the horse's coat can be sponged with an insecticide
  • Stimulates hatching
  • Kills larvae

Dermatobia hominis

Human Bot Fly - Captain R. Goodman, United States Air Force

Human Bot Fly Larvae - Captain R. Goodman, United States Air Force

• Also called the human bot fly

• Larvae are important parasites of both humans and animals

• Specifically found in South America

Recongition

• Adult can grow up to 25mm in length

• Similar to Calliphora in appearance
  • Blue/black
  • Yellow/orange head and legs

• Larvae are dinstincive as they taper towards the posterior end

Life Cycle

• Eggs laid on blood sucking flies
  • E.g. On mosquitos, which hatch when the mosquito next lands on a warm blooded animal

• Larvae penetrate skin causing painful swellings

• Larvae emerge after 35-42 days and fall to ground to pupate

• 4 month life cycle

Pathogenesis

• In humans, the larvae are msot often found in swellings on the head and limbs

• Larvae cause painful swellings and distress to cattle

• Larvae cause production losses

• Larvae exit wounds can increase the prevalence of attack by other myiasis flies

Calliphoridae

Recongition

Life Cycle

Pathogenesis

Control

Screw Worm Myiasis

Screw worm larvae - John Kucharski - Wikimedia Commons

• C. bezziana cause myiasis in both animals and humans

• Located mainly in tropical regions

• Larvae are obligate parasites

Recongition

• Similar to Calliphora
  • Irridescent
  • Clear wings
  • Blue abdomen

• Longitudinal stripes on thorax

• Larvae have bands of spines
  • Look like screws

Life Cycle

• Eggs laid in wounds or body cavities

• Larvae feed as colonies

• Larvae drop to the ground to pupate

Pathogenesis

• Spiracles are exposed as larvae feed which expands the wound
  • Creates a foul smelling lesion

• Cause irritation and pyrexia

Control

• In the USA
  • Mass eradication through the release of sterile males
  • Currently only persists where flies have migrated across the Mexican border

• In Africa
  • Introduced into Libya through the importation of infested livestock
  • Sterile meales released
  • Eradication occured in 1991

Maggot Debridement Therapy

Maggot therapy on a wound - Wikimedia Commons

• Human medicine
  • Sterile Lucilla sericata maggots used to treat infected and necrotic wounds
  • Larvae secrete proteolytic enzymes and antimicrobial agents into the wound
    • Larvae do not burrow under the skin or attack healthy tissue

• Veterinary medicine
  • Published reports rare
  • Recently used successfully to treat a suppurative wound in a donkey that did not respond to conventional methods and surgery

Wohlfahrtia sp.

• Obligatory parasite

• Occurs in North America

• Parasite of mink and sometimes humans

Recongition

• Large 8-14mm long

• Pale grey

• Black stripes in thorax

• Black spots on abdomen

Life Cycle

• Larvae deposited directly onto host
  • No egg stage

• Larvae moult twice on host then fall to ground to pupate

Pathogenesis

• Larvae penetrate intact skin
  • Cause boil like swellings

Links

• Viruses

• Ectoparasiticides