Oestridae

Warble Fly - Geo. H. Carpenter, Cambridge University Press 1913 - Wikimedia Commons

• The larvae of Oestridae spp. are obligatory parasites

• The three important species of veterinary interest
  • Hypoderma
  • Oestrus
  • Gasterophilus

Hypoderma spp.

• Also known as warble flies

• Important cattle parasites
  • Also parasitise horses, small ruminants and sometimes humans

• The two main species in cattle are
  • H. bovis
  • H. lineatum

• H. diana parasitises deer

• Infestation is largely confined to the Northern Hemisphere

Recognition

• Large 13-15mm long

• Similar to bumble bees in appearance
  • Yellow abdomen
  • Band of black hairs

• 1 pair of wings

Life cycle

• Adult flies emerge on warm, sunny days between June and August

• White eggs are laid around the belly and legs of the animal
  • Eggs are attached to hairs by cement and a small terminal clasp
  • H. lineatum lays a whole row of eggs as it approaches the animal stealthily
  • H. bovis only deposits a single egg before the animal runs away (gadding) as it makes a loud buzzing noise

• The adult lives for 3 weeks

• Females can lay several hundred eggs in their life

• A few days after eggs are laid, larvae emerge and crawl down the hairs into the hair follicles

• Larvae penetrate the skin through wounds made by biting flies

• Larvae migrate through the subcutaneous tissue towards the diaphragm
  • Enzymatic secretions and mouth hooks aid larval migration

• After 3 months larvae reach winter resting sites where they remain from November to February/March whilst moulting to the L2 stage. These sites are different between the 2 species
  • Epidural fat in the spinal canal for H. bovis
  • Wall of the oesophagus for H. lineatum

• Larvae then migrate back to the subcutis along the midline of the back where they bore a breathing hole through the skin and moult to the L3 stage
  • Larvae are palpable as distinct swellings called warbles

• L3 larvae emerge after 4-10 weeks where they fall to the ground and pupate under loose vegetation

• Adult flies emerge from the pupa after 1 month where they copulate, lay eggs and die within 2 weeks

• H. lineatum are on the wing 6-8 weeks before H. bovis

• There is only 1 generation of warble flies per year

Pathogenesis

• Causes myositis

• Production losses
  • Condemnation and down-grading of hides
  • Reduced milk yield and reduced weight gain
  • Injury from stock panic
  • Trimmed meat losses from H. lineatum
    • 'Butcher's Jelly' around warbles which is green due to mass eosinophil attraction

• Paraplegia resulting from
  • Toxin release
  • Pressure on the spinal cord (H. bovis)
  • Bloat from pressure on the oesophageal wall (H. lineatum)

Control

• Total eradication should be aimed for

• Old methods include popping out warbles
  • But this could lead to anaphylactic shock

• Ectoparasiticides
  • Systemic organophosphorus insecticides in pour-on formula
  • Avermectins and milbemycins in pour-on and injectible formulations

• Timing is crucial for treatment
  • Larvae residing in winter resting sites, if killed, can lead to bloat and paraplegia
  • It is safe to treat in the autumn before larvae reach their winter resting sites and in the spring when the warbles have migrated to the midline of the back
  • Ivermectin can be given at any time without risking host infection as larval antigen is released much slower

Legislation in the UK

• 'Warble Fly Order 1978' requires all clinically affected animals to be treated

• Notifiable disease

• 'Warble Fly Infected Area Order 1983'

• For more information on the warble fly orders, see here

Oestrus ovis

• Also known as the sheep nasal bot fly

• Larvae parasitise the nasal chambers of sheep and goats

• Found in most sheep rearing areas of the world

Recognition

• 13-15mm long

• Grey colouring

• Black spots on abdomen

• Clear wings

• Larvae have distinct black bands on each body segment

Life cycle

• Larvae are squirted into the nostrils of sheep in a jet of liquid by the adult fly

• The larvae crawl caudally into the nasal cavity and feed on the nasal mucosa and mature before returning to the nostrils

• Larval development takes up to 2 months
  • Larvae can overwinter in the nasal cavity if deposited late in the summer

• Once the larvae have developed they are sneezed out and pupate on the ground

• The adult fly emerges 1 months later

• Adult flies only live for 2-3 weeks

Pathogenesis

• Adult flies cause annoyance
  • Interrupts feeding
  • Leads to a decreased weight gain

• Larvae cause nasal irritation, nasal discharge and sneezing
  • Irritate the nasal mucosa with oral hooks and spines causing a viscous exudate to be produced from which they feed
  • Heavy infestations lead to erosion of the bones in the sinuses (turbinate bones)
  • Penetration of the brain leads to false gid (high stepping gait and incoordination)

• Pathology in the nasal cavity

Control

• Systemic insecticides can be used in heavy infestations

• In warmer countries, strategic prophylactic treatment can be used

Gasterophilus spp.

Horse Bot Fly - Dennis Ray - Wikimedia Commons

• Also known as the horse bot fly

• Obligate parasites of equids

• Spend most of life cycle in the equine stomach
  • Of little pathogenic significance

• Three important species (in the UK)
  • G. intestinalis which is the most common
  • G. nasalis
  • G. haemorrhoidalis which is rare

• Two other important veterinary species
  • G. nigricornis
  • G. inermis

Recognition

• Medium to large flies at 10-20mm long

• Look similar to drone bumble bees
  • Body covered with dense yellow hair
  • Dark coloured hairs produce a banding pattern

• Clear wings with brown patches

Life cycle

• Adults are most active in late summer

• Eggs are laid on the body and hatch spontaneously or are stimulated to hatch through an increase in warmth and moisture from the animal self-grooming. They are laid in different areas according to species
  • G. intestinalis eggs are laid in the hair of the shoulders and fore legs
  • G. nasalis eggs are laid in the intermandibular area
  • G. haemorrhoidalis eggs are laid around the lips

• Creamy-white eggs

• 1-2mm in length

• Larvae crawl into the mouth and penetrate the tissues of the tongue and buccal mucosa

• Larvae then emerge after a couple of weeks and are swallowed

• Larvae pass into the stomach and attach to the gastric mucosa
  • Larvae are now known as bots

• Each species attaches to a specific part of the stomach
  • G. intestinalis attaches to the cardiac region
  • G. nasalis attaches to the pylorus

• After 10-12 months in the stomach, the larvae detach and are passed out in the faeces
  • G. haemorrhoidalis attaches to the rectal mucosa before being passed out

• Larvae pupate on the ground

• Adults hatch after 1-2 months and survive from a few days to 2 weeks
  • Adults have non-functional mouthparts so cannot feed

• There is only 1 generation per year in temperate regions of the world

Pathogenesis

• Adults cause annoyance when egg laying
  • Disturbance and panic can ensue

• Larvae cause a marked inflammatory reaction when attached to the gastric mucosa
  • Ring like thickening around the base of each attached larvae

• Large numbers of larvae may interfere with the passage of food and action of gastric sphincters

• G. haemorrhoidalis can cause mild irritation to the rectal wall

• Host reaction to larvae in the mouth is minimal

Control

• Treatment of horses with insecticides over winter
  • Breaks the life cycle as all the population are present as bots in the stomach

• If eggs are present in late summer, the horse's coat can be sponged with an insecticide
  • Stimulates hatching
  • Kills larvae