Difference between revisions of "Peritonitis - Cats and Dogs"
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| − | '''Secondary peritonitis''' occurs as the result of a pre-existing pathological process within the abdomen. It can be further classified into '''septic''' or '''non-septic''' peritonitis, where septic peritonitis results from direct bacterial infection of the peritoneal cavity. Septic peritonitis is the most common form in the dog and its causes include: | + | |
| − | *'''Perforation of the gastro-intestinal tract''' due to foreign bodies, [[Intussusception|intussuscepta]], invasive [[Neoplasia - Pathology|neoplasia]], deep ulceration or dehiscence of surgical wounds or biopsy sites. Peritonitis as a result of wound dehiscence is most likely to occur 3-5 days post-operatively. | + | ==Description== |
| + | '''Peritonitis''' is defined as [[Inflammation - Pathology|inflammation]] of the [[Peritoneal cavity - Anatomy & Physiology|peritoneum]]. The inflammatory response involves vasodilation, [[Exudate|exudation]] of protein-rich fluid, cellular infiltration, pain and, chronically, formation of fibrous adhesion. The disease can be classified into primary and secondary cases. | ||
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| + | '''Primary peritonitis''' occurs spontaneously without any pre-existing pathological process in the abdomen. In cats, [[Feline Infections Peritonitis (FIP)|feline infectious peritonitis]] is the most common cause of primary peritonitis. | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Secondary peritonitis''' occurs as the result of a pre-existing pathological process within the abdomen. It can be further classified into '''septic''' or '''non-septic''' peritonitis, where septic peritonitis results from direct bacterial infection of the peritoneal cavity. Septic peritonitis is the most common form in the dog and its causes include: | ||
| + | *'''Perforation of the gastro-intestinal tract''' due to foreign bodies, [[Intussusception|intussuscepta]], invasive [[Neoplasia - Pathology|neoplasia]], deep ulceration or dehiscence of surgical wounds or biopsy sites. Peritonitis as a result of wound dehiscence is most likely to occur 3-5 days post-operatively. | ||
*'''Penetration of the abdomen''' by a stick, gunshot or other foreign body. | *'''Penetration of the abdomen''' by a stick, gunshot or other foreign body. | ||
| − | *Rupture of an infected uterus ('''pyometra'''), | + | *Rupture of an infected uterus ('''pyometra'''), biliary tract or urinary tract. |
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The bacteria causing septic peritonitis or their products may spread systemically causing sepsis or endotoxaemia. | The bacteria causing septic peritonitis or their products may spread systemically causing sepsis or endotoxaemia. | ||
| − | '''Non-septic''' peritonitis may occur due to the leakage of bile, urine or pancreatic enzymes ('''chemical peritonitis''') or due to the presence of foreign substances such as barium or glove powder ('''physical peritonitis'''). In some cases of urinary tract or biliary tract rupture however, septic peritonitis may occur if the tracts were previously infected. | + | '''Non-septic''' peritonitis may occur due to the leakage of bile, urine or pancreatic enzymes ('''chemical peritonitis''') or due to the presence of foreign substances such as barium or glove powder ('''physical peritonitis'''). In some cases of urinary tract or biliary tract rupture however, septic peritonitis may occur if the tracts were previously infected. |
| − | ==Clinical Signs== | + | ==Diagnosis== |
| + | ===Clinical Signs=== | ||
The clinical signs are related to the presence of severe inflammation within the body cavity, with or without systemic infection. | The clinical signs are related to the presence of severe inflammation within the body cavity, with or without systemic infection. | ||
*'''Abdominal pain''', manifesting as a reluctance to move due to inflammation of the parietal peritoneum. | *'''Abdominal pain''', manifesting as a reluctance to move due to inflammation of the parietal peritoneum. | ||
*'''Depression''', anorexia and lethargy and non-specific signs of infection or systemic disease. | *'''Depression''', anorexia and lethargy and non-specific signs of infection or systemic disease. | ||
*[[Vomiting|'''Vomiting''']] and [[Diarrhoea|'''diarrhoea''']] may occur due to alterations in intestinal motility and functional ileus. | *[[Vomiting|'''Vomiting''']] and [[Diarrhoea|'''diarrhoea''']] may occur due to alterations in intestinal motility and functional ileus. | ||
| − | *'''Hypotension''' and (septic) [[Shock|'''shock''']] due to effusion of fluid into the peritoneum and systemic vasodilation. | + | *'''Hypotension''' and (septic) [[Shock - Pathology|'''shock''']] due to effusion of fluid into the peritoneum and systemic vasodilation. |
*'''Hypothermia''' or '''hyperthermia'''. | *'''Hypothermia''' or '''hyperthermia'''. | ||
| − | ==Laboratory Tests== | + | ===Laboratory Tests=== |
| − | ===Haematology=== | + | ====Haematology==== |
| − | As with any severe inflammatory process, '''leucocytosis''' will occur. Initially, this is caused by ''' | + | As with any severe inflammatory process, '''leucocytosis''' will occur. Initially, this is caused by '''neutrophilia''' which may have a left shift or, if very severe, a degenerative right shift. Severe localised inflammation may stimulate a '''leukaemoid response''' with massive mobilisation of neutrophils from the bone marrow pools. |
'''Haemoconcentration''' (causing a raised packed cell volume (PCV) and total protein concentration) may occur due to loss of extracellular fluid. | '''Haemoconcentration''' (causing a raised packed cell volume (PCV) and total protein concentration) may occur due to loss of extracellular fluid. | ||
| − | ===Biochemistry=== | + | ====Biochemistry==== |
'''Hypoproteinaemia''' may occur due to loss of plasma proteins into the inflammatory [[Exudate|exudate]]. | '''Hypoproteinaemia''' may occur due to loss of plasma proteins into the inflammatory [[Exudate|exudate]]. | ||
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'''Hypokalaemia''' may occur as a result of chronic vomiting and it may contribute to the intestinal ileus which often develops in cases of peritonitis. | '''Hypokalaemia''' may occur as a result of chronic vomiting and it may contribute to the intestinal ileus which often develops in cases of peritonitis. | ||
| − | ==Diagnostic Imaging== | + | ===Diagnostic Imaging=== |
| − | ===Radiography=== | + | ====Radiography==== |
| − | '''Plain radiographs of the abdomen''' may reveal the presence of free gas in the abdomen ('''pneumoperitoneum''') due to intestinal perforation or bacterial production. The normal serosal detail may be effaced due to the presence of an abdominal effusion and, if a horizontal beam decubitus radiograph is made, a '''fluid line''' may be apparent. | + | '''Plain radiographs of the abdomen''' may reveal the presence of free gas in the abdomen ('''pneumoperitoneum''') due to intestinal perforation or bacterial production. The normal serosal detail may be effaced due to the presence of an abdominal effusion and, if a horizontal beam decubitus radiograph is made, a '''fluid line''' may be apparent. |
In cases where neoplasia is thought to be the cause of the inflammatory process, thoracic radiograph should be assessed for signs of metastatic disease. | In cases where neoplasia is thought to be the cause of the inflammatory process, thoracic radiograph should be assessed for signs of metastatic disease. | ||
| − | ===Ultrasonography=== | + | ====Ultrasonography==== |
| − | This modality has a high sensitivity for the detection of free fluid in the abdomen and it may be used to identify some specific causes of peritonitis, including abscesses of organs or [[Biliary Tract Rupture| | + | This modality has a high sensitivity for the detection of free fluid in the abdomen and it may be used to identify some specific causes of peritonitis, including abscesses of organs or rupture of the [[Biliary Tract - Rupture|biliary tract. |
Ultrasound scans can also be used to guide '''abdominocentesis'''. | Ultrasound scans can also be used to guide '''abdominocentesis'''. | ||
===Other Tests=== | ===Other Tests=== | ||
| − | Free abdominal fluid can be collected under ultrasound guidance and submitted for cytological analysis. If fluid cannot be obtained on aspiration, '''diagnostic peritoneal lavage''' can be performed by | + | Free abdominal fluid can be collected under ultrasound guidance and submitted for cytological analysis. If fluid cannot be obtained on aspiration, '''diagnostic peritoneal lavage''' can be performed by istilling a small volume (~20 ml/kg) of warmed isotonic crystalloid into the abdomen, agitating the abdomen and then re-aspirating this fluid. Grossly, the fluid may contain vegetable fibres if the gastro-intestinal tract has ruptured or it may be evidently green (indicating the presence of bile) or haemorrhagic. On cytological examaintion, the sample should be assessed for the presence of neutrophils (and other leucocytes) with intracellular bacteria. |
Further possible tests include: | Further possible tests include: | ||
| − | *Measurement of '''amylase''' and '''lipase''' where the cause is suspected to be [[Pancreatitis|pancreatitis]] | + | *Measurement of '''amylase''' and '''lipase''' where the cause is suspected to be [[Pancreatitis - Dog and Cat|pancreatitis]] |
| − | *'''Bile''' where [[Biliary Tract Rupture|biliary tract rupture]] is suspected. | + | *'''Bile''' where [[Biliary Tract - Rupture|biliary tract rupture]] is suspected. |
| − | *'''Creatinine''' and '''potassium''' if the effusion is thought to be a uroabdomen | + | *'''Creatinine''' and '''potassium''' if the effusion is thought to be a uroabdomen. |
| − | *'''Glucose''' and '''lactate''' should be measured | + | *'''Glucose''' (<2.8 mmol/l) and '''lactate''' (>5.5 mmol/l) should be measured and, where their values are below those shown, the inflammation is likely to be septic. |
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In cats with [[Feline Infectious Peritonitis]], the effusion usually has a high protein content (>35g/l) with a high globulin: albumin ratio. There is a variably high cellularity mainly composed of lymphocytes. | In cats with [[Feline Infectious Peritonitis]], the effusion usually has a high protein content (>35g/l) with a high globulin: albumin ratio. There is a variably high cellularity mainly composed of lymphocytes. | ||
==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
| − | It is vital to identify severe cases promptly as these will require emergency surgical intervention. Any of the following criteria is a major indication for surgery: | + | It is vital to identify severe cases promptly as these will require emergency surgical intervention. Any of the following criteria is a major indication for surgery: |
*Presence of intracellular bacteria in leucocytes in the abdominal exudate | *Presence of intracellular bacteria in leucocytes in the abdominal exudate | ||
*Pneumoperitoneum | *Pneumoperitoneum | ||
*Presence of penetrating injuries to the abdomen. | *Presence of penetrating injuries to the abdomen. | ||
| − | ===Medical | + | ===Medical=== |
| − | ====Fluid | + | ====Fluid therapy==== |
| − | Aggressive | + | *Aggressive fluid therapy with [[Crystalloids|crystalloid]] and [[Colloids|colloid]] should be given on initial presentation to improve haemodynamic parameters. |
| + | *Fluid therapy is also very important in the postoperative period. Both crystalloid and colloid should be continued until the patient is normotensive. However, if hypotension continues, a vasopressor such as [[Vasopressin|vasopressin]] should be considered. | ||
| + | *Supplementaion of glucose and potassium may be needed. | ||
| + | *If severe metabolic acidosis is present, bicarbonate may be given. | ||
| + | *Septic peritonitis can cause [[Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation|disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)]] and therefore plasma can be given to replace clotting factors. | ||
| − | + | ====Antimicrobial==== | |
| + | *Broad spectrum antibiotics should be given, preferably following culture and sensitivity test. [[Escherichia coli|Escherichia coli]], [[:Category:Clostridium species|Clostridium spp.]] and Enterococcus spp. are most commonly isolated. | ||
| − | + | ===Surgery=== | |
| + | This may be indicated if the cause of peritonitis is undetermined or intestinal rupture or intestinal obstruction or mesenteric avulsion is suspected. Abdominal lavage is controversial due to the possibility of dissemination of infection. It is indicated in cases of generalised peritonitis but care has to be taken in cases of localised peritonitis. As much of the fluid used for lavage has to be drained as it will hinder the body’s immune system otherwise. | ||
| − | == | + | ==Prognosis== |
| − | + | Guarded. Peritonitis is a multifactorial disease and the consequence is fatal in most cases. A rapid diagnosis and treatment may improve the prognosis. | |
| − | + | *Fibrinohaemorrhagic peritonitis in infectious canine hepatitis | |
| − | + | *Septic peritonitis caused by various agents, often [[Escherichia coli|''Escherichia coli'']] and anaerobic bacteria through perforation of the gut, rupture of [[Urinary Bladder - Anatomy & Physiology|urinary bladder]] or an abscess | |
| + | *Putrid peritonitis in uterine rupture with pyometra or septic metritis | ||
| + | *''[[:Category:Nocardia species|Nocardia]]'' infection reults in profuse pink/red fluid due to blood and chronic inflammatory cells | ||
| + | *Granulomatous peritonitis caused by [[Fungi|fungi]], ''[[:Category:Nocardia species|Nocardia]]'' and ''[[:Category:Actinomyces|Actinomyces]]'' | ||
| − | + | ===Cats=== | |
| − | + | *Putrid peritonitis in uterine rupture due to pyometra or fetal putrefaction | |
| + | *Peritonitis due to penetrating wounds | ||
| + | *Septic peritonitis due to anaerobes in cat bite abscesses | ||
| + | *Serous peritonitis in cats with [[Feline Infectious Peritonitis|feline infectious peritonitis]] especially in the wet form but exudate occurs also in the dry form | ||
| + | **Viscous, clear, pale to deep yellow fluid, may contain strands of fibrin | ||
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==References== | ==References== | ||
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*Fossum, T. W. et. al. (2007) '''Small Animal Surgery (Third Edition)''' ''Mosby Elsevier'' | *Fossum, T. W. et. al. (2007) '''Small Animal Surgery (Third Edition)''' ''Mosby Elsevier'' | ||
*Nelson, R.W. and Couto, C.G. (2009) '''Small Animal Internal Medicine (Fourth Edition)''' ''Mosby Elsevier''. | *Nelson, R.W. and Couto, C.G. (2009) '''Small Animal Internal Medicine (Fourth Edition)''' ''Mosby Elsevier''. | ||
*Tilley, L. P. & Smith, F. W. K. (2007) '''Blackwell's Five-minute Veterinary Consult: Canine & Feline (Fourth Edition)''' ''Blackwell Publishing'' | *Tilley, L. P. & Smith, F. W. K. (2007) '''Blackwell's Five-minute Veterinary Consult: Canine & Feline (Fourth Edition)''' ''Blackwell Publishing'' | ||
| − | For further information on peritonitis see | + | For further information on peritonitis see: [http://inpractice.bvapublications.com/cgi/reprint/26/7/358 maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=haemoabdomen&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT] In Practice article |
| + | [[Category:Peritoneal_Cavity_-_Inflammatory_Pathology]] | ||
| − | + | [[Category:To_Do_-_James]] | |
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| − | [[Category: | ||
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Revision as of 14:29, 30 July 2010
 |
This article is still under construction. |
Description
Peritonitis is defined as inflammation of the peritoneum. The inflammatory response involves vasodilation, exudation of protein-rich fluid, cellular infiltration, pain and, chronically, formation of fibrous adhesion. The disease can be classified into primary and secondary cases.
Primary peritonitis occurs spontaneously without any pre-existing pathological process in the abdomen. In cats, feline infectious peritonitis is the most common cause of primary peritonitis.
Secondary peritonitis occurs as the result of a pre-existing pathological process within the abdomen. It can be further classified into septic or non-septic peritonitis, where septic peritonitis results from direct bacterial infection of the peritoneal cavity. Septic peritonitis is the most common form in the dog and its causes include:
- Perforation of the gastro-intestinal tract due to foreign bodies, intussuscepta, invasive neoplasia, deep ulceration or dehiscence of surgical wounds or biopsy sites. Peritonitis as a result of wound dehiscence is most likely to occur 3-5 days post-operatively.
- Penetration of the abdomen by a stick, gunshot or other foreign body.
- Rupture of an infected uterus (pyometra), biliary tract or urinary tract.
The bacteria causing septic peritonitis or their products may spread systemically causing sepsis or endotoxaemia.
Non-septic peritonitis may occur due to the leakage of bile, urine or pancreatic enzymes (chemical peritonitis) or due to the presence of foreign substances such as barium or glove powder (physical peritonitis). In some cases of urinary tract or biliary tract rupture however, septic peritonitis may occur if the tracts were previously infected.
Diagnosis
Clinical Signs
The clinical signs are related to the presence of severe inflammation within the body cavity, with or without systemic infection.
- Abdominal pain, manifesting as a reluctance to move due to inflammation of the parietal peritoneum.
- Depression, anorexia and lethargy and non-specific signs of infection or systemic disease.
- Vomiting and diarrhoea may occur due to alterations in intestinal motility and functional ileus.
- Hypotension and (septic) shock due to effusion of fluid into the peritoneum and systemic vasodilation.
- Hypothermia or hyperthermia.
Laboratory Tests
Haematology
As with any severe inflammatory process, leucocytosis will occur. Initially, this is caused by neutrophilia which may have a left shift or, if very severe, a degenerative right shift. Severe localised inflammation may stimulate a leukaemoid response with massive mobilisation of neutrophils from the bone marrow pools.
Haemoconcentration (causing a raised packed cell volume (PCV) and total protein concentration) may occur due to loss of extracellular fluid.
Biochemistry
Hypoproteinaemia may occur due to loss of plasma proteins into the inflammatory exudate.
Hypoglycaemia may occur in cases of septic peritonitis.
Dehydration (which is also responsible for the haemococentration) may also result in pre-renal azotaemia, increased tissue lactate production and metabolic acidosis.
Hypokalaemia may occur as a result of chronic vomiting and it may contribute to the intestinal ileus which often develops in cases of peritonitis.
Diagnostic Imaging
Radiography
Plain radiographs of the abdomen may reveal the presence of free gas in the abdomen (pneumoperitoneum) due to intestinal perforation or bacterial production. The normal serosal detail may be effaced due to the presence of an abdominal effusion and, if a horizontal beam decubitus radiograph is made, a fluid line may be apparent.
In cases where neoplasia is thought to be the cause of the inflammatory process, thoracic radiograph should be assessed for signs of metastatic disease.
Ultrasonography
This modality has a high sensitivity for the detection of free fluid in the abdomen and it may be used to identify some specific causes of peritonitis, including abscesses of organs or rupture of the [[Biliary Tract - Rupture|biliary tract.
Ultrasound scans can also be used to guide abdominocentesis.
Other Tests
Free abdominal fluid can be collected under ultrasound guidance and submitted for cytological analysis. If fluid cannot be obtained on aspiration, diagnostic peritoneal lavage can be performed by istilling a small volume (~20 ml/kg) of warmed isotonic crystalloid into the abdomen, agitating the abdomen and then re-aspirating this fluid. Grossly, the fluid may contain vegetable fibres if the gastro-intestinal tract has ruptured or it may be evidently green (indicating the presence of bile) or haemorrhagic. On cytological examaintion, the sample should be assessed for the presence of neutrophils (and other leucocytes) with intracellular bacteria.
Further possible tests include:
- Measurement of amylase and lipase where the cause is suspected to be pancreatitis
- Bile where biliary tract rupture is suspected.
- Creatinine and potassium if the effusion is thought to be a uroabdomen.
- Glucose (<2.8 mmol/l) and lactate (>5.5 mmol/l) should be measured and, where their values are below those shown, the inflammation is likely to be septic.
In cats with Feline Infectious Peritonitis, the effusion usually has a high protein content (>35g/l) with a high globulin: albumin ratio. There is a variably high cellularity mainly composed of lymphocytes.
Treatment
It is vital to identify severe cases promptly as these will require emergency surgical intervention. Any of the following criteria is a major indication for surgery:
- Presence of intracellular bacteria in leucocytes in the abdominal exudate
- Pneumoperitoneum
- Presence of penetrating injuries to the abdomen.
Medical
Fluid therapy
- Aggressive fluid therapy with crystalloid and colloid should be given on initial presentation to improve haemodynamic parameters.
- Fluid therapy is also very important in the postoperative period. Both crystalloid and colloid should be continued until the patient is normotensive. However, if hypotension continues, a vasopressor such as vasopressin should be considered.
- Supplementaion of glucose and potassium may be needed.
- If severe metabolic acidosis is present, bicarbonate may be given.
- Septic peritonitis can cause disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and therefore plasma can be given to replace clotting factors.
Antimicrobial
- Broad spectrum antibiotics should be given, preferably following culture and sensitivity test. Escherichia coli, Clostridium spp. and Enterococcus spp. are most commonly isolated.
Surgery
This may be indicated if the cause of peritonitis is undetermined or intestinal rupture or intestinal obstruction or mesenteric avulsion is suspected. Abdominal lavage is controversial due to the possibility of dissemination of infection. It is indicated in cases of generalised peritonitis but care has to be taken in cases of localised peritonitis. As much of the fluid used for lavage has to be drained as it will hinder the body’s immune system otherwise.
Prognosis
Guarded. Peritonitis is a multifactorial disease and the consequence is fatal in most cases. A rapid diagnosis and treatment may improve the prognosis.
- Fibrinohaemorrhagic peritonitis in infectious canine hepatitis
- Septic peritonitis caused by various agents, often Escherichia coli and anaerobic bacteria through perforation of the gut, rupture of urinary bladder or an abscess
- Putrid peritonitis in uterine rupture with pyometra or septic metritis
- Nocardia infection reults in profuse pink/red fluid due to blood and chronic inflammatory cells
- Granulomatous peritonitis caused by fungi, Nocardia and Actinomyces
Cats
- Putrid peritonitis in uterine rupture due to pyometra or fetal putrefaction
- Peritonitis due to penetrating wounds
- Septic peritonitis due to anaerobes in cat bite abscesses
- Serous peritonitis in cats with feline infectious peritonitis especially in the wet form but exudate occurs also in the dry form
- Viscous, clear, pale to deep yellow fluid, may contain strands of fibrin
References
- Fossum, T. W. et. al. (2007) Small Animal Surgery (Third Edition) Mosby Elsevier
- Nelson, R.W. and Couto, C.G. (2009) Small Animal Internal Medicine (Fourth Edition) Mosby Elsevier.
- Tilley, L. P. & Smith, F. W. K. (2007) Blackwell's Five-minute Veterinary Consult: Canine & Feline (Fourth Edition) Blackwell Publishing
For further information on peritonitis see: maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=haemoabdomen&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT In Practice article