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'''Find out more about snake anatomy in sections covering the''' [[Snake Digestive System|digestive]], [[Snake Respiratory System|respiratory]] '''and''' [[Snake Reproductive System|reproductive]] '''systems'''.
'''Find out more about snake anatomy in sections covering the''' [[Snake Digestive System|digestive]], [[Snake Respiratory System|respiratory]] '''and''' [[Snake Reproductive System|reproductive]] '''systems'''.
==Skin==
==Skin==
[[Image:0051_BLISTER_DISEASE_PYTHON_ed.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Blisters on skin''' ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]
[[Image:0051_BLISTER_DISEASE_PYTHON_ed.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Blisters on skin''' (Copyright © RVC)]]
Check the general appearance of the skin. The skin should be bright and shiny. Assess elasticity and skin tenting. Dehydrated snakes show outwardly directed folds of skin and [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]]. Examine the skin both dorsally and ventrally for retained shed, blisters, pustules, burns, discharges, erythema, pettechi, ulcers, loss of scales, lacerations and swellings. Examine for ectoparasites, especially [[Snake Mites|mites]] that tend to hide under scales of the skin. Brushing the body of the snake over a white sheet may be helpful in checking for mites. The snake's body can be palpated by simply moving the hand, both dorsally and ventrally, down its length. Identify any [[Snake Lumps and Bumps|masses and swellings]] under the skin. Subcutaneous lumps are usually due to abscesses but neoplasia and the second-stage cysts of cestodes can also be encountered in snakes.
Check the general appearance of the skin. The skin should be bright and shiny. Assess elasticity and skin tenting. Dehydrated snakes show outwardly directed folds of skin and [[Snake Dysecdysis|dysecdysis]]. Examine the skin both dorsally and ventrally for retained shed, blisters, pustules, burns, discharges, erythema, pettechi, ulcers, loss of scales, lacerations and swellings. Examine for ectoparasites, especially [[Snake Mites|mites]] that tend to hide under scales of the skin. Brushing the body of the snake over a white sheet may be helpful in checking for mites. The snake's body can be palpated by simply moving the hand, both dorsally and ventrally, down its length. Identify any [[Snake Lumps and Bumps|masses and swellings]] under the skin. Subcutaneous lumps are usually due to abscesses but neoplasia and the second-stage cysts of cestodes can also be encountered in snakes.
'''Find out more about [[Snake Skin|snake skin]]'''.
'''Find out more about [[Snake Skin|snake skin]]'''.
[[Image:Boa_with_dys_ed.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Dysecdysis''' ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]
[[Image:Boa_with_dys_ed.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Dysecdysis''' (Copyright © RVC)]]
===Shedding===
===Shedding===
[[Ecdysis]] (shedding) generally takes place every 14 days although this is dependent on many variables such as environment, age and size of snake. Snakes shed their entire skin in one piece, including the [[Snake Eye|spectacles]], although large snakes greater than 3m in length may shed their skin in incomplete sections. Prior to ecdydsis, a snake will become anorectic and handling may be hazardous to the animal at this time if the underlying epidermis is damaged.
[[Ecdysis]] (shedding) generally takes place every 14 days although this is dependent on many variables such as environment, age and size of snake. Snakes shed their entire skin in one piece, including the [[Snake Eye|spectacles]], although large snakes greater than 3m in length may shed their skin in incomplete sections. Prior to ecdydsis, a snake will become anorectic and handling may be hazardous to the animal at this time if the underlying epidermis is damaged.
The [[Snake Eye|eyes]] are usually considered as a barometer of general health and environmental conditions; therefore a full ophthalmologic examination should be performed in all cases. Observe the movement and general position of the eye within the socket. The optic nerve and other cranial nerves associated with eye function are assessed by observing the snake's reaction to movement and by normal and co-ordinated eye movements. Strabismus may indicated dysfunction. Bulging eyes may result from retrobulbar or periocular cellulitis, absecesses or neoplasia. Inspect the spectacles. They should be clear, not wrinkled, distended or discoloured although they are normally bluish-white prior to shedding. The subspectacular space should be clear. Check for any signs of conjunctivitis. Remember that the mydriatics are not useful and that there is no consensual light reflex.
The [[Snake Eye|eyes]] are usually considered as a barometer of general health and environmental conditions; therefore a full ophthalmologic examination should be performed in all cases. Observe the movement and general position of the eye within the socket. The optic nerve and other cranial nerves associated with eye function are assessed by observing the snake's reaction to movement and by normal and co-ordinated eye movements. Strabismus may indicated dysfunction. Bulging eyes may result from retrobulbar or periocular cellulitis, absecesses or neoplasia. Inspect the spectacles. They should be clear, not wrinkled, distended or discoloured although they are normally bluish-white prior to shedding. The subspectacular space should be clear. Check for any signs of conjunctivitis. Remember that the mydriatics are not useful and that there is no consensual light reflex.
* Other diagnostic tools, such as tonometry (measurement of the intraocular pressure), stains, cytology, bacteriology, histopathology and electron microscopy, in addition to routine diagnostic tools ([[Lizard and Snake Haematology|haemotology]], [[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|biochemistry]], [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|radiology]] and [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|ultrasound]]) can also be used to detect an ocular disease or underlying problem in snakes.
* Other diagnostic tools, such as tonometry (measurement of the intraocular pressure), stains, cytology, bacteriology, histopathology and electron microscopy, in addition to routine diagnostic tools ([[Lizard and Snake Haematology|haemotology]], [[Lizard and Snake Biochemistry|biochemistry]], [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|radiology]] and [[Lizard and Snake Imaging|ultrasound]]) can also be used to detect an ocular disease or underlying problem in snakes.
[[Image:Boa_stomatitis_ed.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Ulcerative stomatitis''' ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]
[[Image:Boa_stomatitis_ed.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Ulcerative stomatitis''' (Copyright © RVC)]]
===Oral cavity===
===Oral cavity===
The oral cavity is fairly easy to evaluate once the mouth is open. Use an object to gently open the mouth without damaging the delicate gingiva and teeth. Do not use any cotton since it snags on the caudally curving teeth. The normally pale and pinkish-white gingiva should be glistening and moist with no petecchiation, excess salivation or oedema. Excessive saliva in the oral cavity suggests pneumonia or gastrointestinal upset. [[Snake Vesicular Dermatitis|Mouth rot]] when present varies from mild erythema to a generalised stomatitis with pus necrotic tissue. The tongue and its sheath should be examined. Check the glottis for any discharge. Check the patency of the internal nares.
The oral cavity is fairly easy to evaluate once the mouth is open. Use an object to gently open the mouth without damaging the delicate gingiva and teeth. Do not use any cotton since it snags on the caudally curving teeth. The normally pale and pinkish-white gingiva should be glistening and moist with no petecchiation, excess salivation or oedema. Excessive saliva in the oral cavity suggests pneumonia or gastrointestinal upset. [[Snake Vesicular Dermatitis|Mouth rot]] when present varies from mild erythema to a generalised stomatitis with pus necrotic tissue. The tongue and its sheath should be examined. Check the glottis for any discharge. Check the patency of the internal nares.
==Vent and tail==
==Vent and tail==
The [[Cloaca|cloaca]] can be examined very simply by using a otoscope or endoscope. Check for [[Oedema - Pathology|oedema]], erythema, discharge and swellings. Check the vent for any soiling which may be due to parasitic infection of the large intestine. Make a faecal smear if possible. Examine the tail for retained sloughed skin, lumps and other deformities.
The [[Cloaca|cloaca]] can be examined very simply by using a otoscope or endoscope. Check for [[Oedema - Pathology|oedema]], erythema, discharge and swellings. Check the vent for any soiling which may be due to parasitic infection of the large intestine. Make a faecal smear if possible. Examine the tail for retained sloughed skin, lumps and other deformities.
[[Image:Sexing_snakes.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Sexing snakes''' ©RVC and its licensors, Peer Zwart and Fredric Frye. All rights reserved]]
[[Image:Sexing_snakes.jpg|200px|thumb|right|'''Sexing snakes''' (Copyright © RVC)]]
==Sexing/Probing==
==Sexing/Probing==
The snake is positioned so that the [[Vent|vent]] is easily accessible. A smooth lubricated blunt-tipped probe is inserted caudally through the vent. In males the probes enters the [[Hemipenes|hemipenes]] (10-12 scale rows) while in females it may enter the musk glands (2-3 scale rows). Take care since rough use of probes can cause damage. In females it is possible to perforate the musk gland and allow the probe to slide in as far as it would in a male snake.
The snake is positioned so that the [[Vent|vent]] is easily accessible. A smooth lubricated blunt-tipped probe is inserted caudally through the vent. In males the probes enters the [[Hemipenes|hemipenes]] (10-12 scale rows) while in females it may enter the musk glands (2-3 scale rows). Take care since rough use of probes can cause damage. In females it is possible to perforate the musk gland and allow the probe to slide in as far as it would in a male snake.