Difference between revisions of "Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology"

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== Introduction ==
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==Introduction==
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[[File:Anatomy and physiology of animals Relation btw sensory, relay & motor neurons.jpg|Right|400px|thumb|Spinal Cord Anatomy and physiology]]
 
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The spinal cord can be divided to several regions:
 
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:'''cervical''' ''(C1-C6)''
 
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:'''cervicothoracic''' ''(C7-T2)''
 
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:'''thoracolumbar''' ''(T3-L3)''
 
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:'''lumbosacral''' ''(L3-S2)''
 
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:'''sacral''' ''(S3 onwards)''
 
  
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Nerves originating from the spinal cord and the segmental spinal nerves innervate the limbs.
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The spinal cord can be divided to several regions: <BR><BR>
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<br> <br>
 
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The '''forelimb nerves''' include the '''suprascapular''' ''(C5-6)'', the '''musculocutaneous''' ''(C5-7)'', the '''ulna/median''' (Originates from the brachial plexus, which is formed from ''C5-T1'') and the '''radial''' ''(C5-T1)''.
 
  
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The '''hindlimb nerves''' include the '''obturator''' ''(L2-4)'', the '''femoral''' ''(L2-4)'' and the '''sciatic''' ''(L4-S3)''. The sciatic nerve branches to the tibial nerve and the peroneal nerve.
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<center>
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<br> <br>
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{| border="3" cellpadding="8"
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!width="150"|'''<u>Region</u>'''
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!width="300"|'''<u>Segments</u>'''
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|-
 +
|Cervical
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|C1-C6
 +
|-
 +
|Cervicothoracic
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|C7-T2
 +
|-
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|Thoracolumbar
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|T3-L3
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|-
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|Lumbosacral
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|L3-S2
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|-
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|Sacral
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|S3 onwards
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|}
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</center><BR>
  
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== Structure and Function  ==
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Nerves originating from the spinal cord and the segmental spinal nerves innervate the limbs.
 +
The '''forelimb nerves''' include:
 +
*** Suprascapular (C5-6)
 +
*** Musculocutaneous (C5-7)
 +
*** Ulna/median (Originates from the brachial plexus, which is formed from C5-T1)
 +
*** Radial (C5-T1)
  
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The '''spinal cord''' is constructed of the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Marginal layer|marginal layer]] ''which has axons and white matter, the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Mantle|mantle]]'' which contains cell bodies and grey matter and the ''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Spinal Canal|spinal canal]]''. This canal conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and autonomic) to the brain, conducts motor information from the brain to various effectors and acts as a minor reflex center. <br> <br>
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The '''hindlimb nerves''' include:
 +
*** Obturator (L2-4)
 +
*** Femoral (L2-4)
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*** Sciatic (L4-S3)
  
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==Sensory Pathways==
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The sciatic nerve branches to the tibial nerve and the peroneal nerve.
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[[File:Spinal cord tracts - English.png|right|200px|thumb|Spinal cord tracts]]
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The spinal cord contains a number of [[Sensory Pathways - Anatomy & Physiology|sensory (ascending) pathways]] or tracts contained within the [[Central Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology#White Matter|white matter]]. These pathways allow sensory information such as pain, touch, temperature or kinaesthesia (conscious proprioception) to be passed through the spinal cord and on to higher levels of the brain.  
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==Structure and Function==
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<br />
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{| style="width:75%; height:200px" border="1"
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!
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!'''Structures Present'''
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!'''Function'''
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|-
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| '''Spinal Cord'''
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| '''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Marginal layer|Marginal layer]]''' - Axons, white matter
 +
 
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'''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Mantle|Mantle]]''' - Cell bodies, grey matter
 +
 
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'''[[Spinal Cord - Anatomy & Physiology#Spinal Canal|Spinal canal]]'''
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| Conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and autonomic) to the brain, conducts motor information from the brain to various effectors and acts as a minor reflex center.
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|
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|}
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====Marginal Layer====
 +
 
 +
====Mantle====
 +
 
 +
====Spinal Canal====
 +
 
 +
==Function==
 +
 
 +
*==Basic Concepts==
 +
[[Image:cerebrumbrainstemcerebellum.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cerebrum, brain stem and cerebellum. Image courtesy of BioMed Archive]]
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===<u>Components</u>===
 +
 
 +
* The central nervous system consists of:
 +
** The brain
 +
*** Prefix = "encephalo"
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** The spinal cord
 +
*** Prefix = "myelo"
 +
 
 +
===<u>Function</U>===
 +
 
 +
# Sensory neurons from both the internal and external environment relay information to the CNS.
 +
# The CNS processes sensory information and intitiates motor outputs.
 +
# Effector and motor neurons from the CNS relay the appropriate outputs to effector organs.
 +
 
 +
====The Autonomic Nervous System====
 +
 
 +
* The autonomic nervous system relays sensory information from, and motor information to, the '''internal environment'''.
 +
** It therefore plays an important role in the maintenance of homeostasis.
 +
 
 +
====The Somatosensory Nervous System====
 +
 
 +
* The somatosensory nervous system relays sensory information from, and motor information to, the '''external environment'''.
 +
 
 +
===<u>White and Grey Matter</u>===
 +
 
 +
====White Matter====
 +
 
 +
* White matter consists of accumulations of myelinated axons.
 +
** Myelinated axons are wrapped in '''myelin'''
 +
*** Myelin is compsed of lipid and protein in an 80:20 ratio.
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*** It insulates axons to give efficient action potential conduction.
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*** Myelin is provided by:
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**** [[Neurons - Anatomy & Physiology#Oligodendrocytes|Oligodendrocytes]] in the CNS
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***** Myelinate several neurons at once.
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***** Respond poorly in injury. [[Image:Braincosssection.jpg|thumb|right|150px|White and grey matter. Image courtesy of BioMed Archive]]
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**** Schwann cells in the PNS
 +
***** Myelinate one axon only.
 +
* A "funiculus" is a large region of white matter in the spinal cord.
 +
 
 +
====Grey Matter====
 +
 
 +
* The outer portions of the cerebral cortex and the inner portions of the spinal cord are composed of grey matter.
 +
** Grey matter is also found in coloumns and scattered in brainstem nuclei.
 +
* Composed of neuronal cell bodies, plus glial cells.
 +
 
 +
===<u>Upper and Lower Motor Neurons</u>===
 +
 
 +
====Lower Motor Neuron (LMN)====
 +
 
 +
* LMNs are efferent neurons which connect the CNS to smooth or skeletal muscle.
 +
** Autonomic LMNs connect to smooth muscle.
 +
** Somatic LMNs connect to skeletal muscle.
 +
*** Those innervating the muscles of the axial and peripheral skeleton have their cells bodies in the ventral horn of the spinal cord.
 +
* Injury causes LMN weakness.
 +
** This is characterised by:
 +
*** Depressed reflexes
 +
*** Decreased tone
 +
*** Neurogenic muscle atrophy
 +
 
 +
====Upper Motor Neuron (UMN)====
 +
 
 +
* The upper motor neuron comprises the motor system of the CNS. This is responsible for:
 +
** Initiating voluntary movement.
 +
** Maintenance of tone and posture.
 +
* In man, direct connections exist between neurons in the motor cortex and LMNs in the spinal cord.
 +
** This is known as the "pyramidal system".
 +
* In animals, there are scattered groups of interconnected neurons in the cortex and brainstem, which ultimately synapse with LMNs in the brainstem and spinal cord.
 +
** The "extrapyramidal system".
 +
* UMN injury results in:
 +
*# Increased extensor tone, giving:
 +
*#* Stiffness
 +
*#* Spasticity
 +
*# Delay in the onset of protraction, and a longer stride
 +
*# Disinhibition of the LMN relfex ability.
 +
*#* This causes increased reflexes.
 +
*# Inability to stimulate LMN.
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*#* UMN weakness results.
  
 
==Vasculature==
 
==Vasculature==
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It is important to note that there is no direct vasculature to the spinal cord but instead there are a number of choroid plexuses that act as an exchanger between the vasculature of the spinal cord/brain and the fluid surrounding these structures. This distinction is referred to as the [[Blood Brain Barrier - Anatomy & Physiology|"blood-brain barrier"]].
 
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<br />
 
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<br />
 
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The vasculature of the spinal cord has a close relationship with the [[Cerebral Spinal Fluid - Anatomy & Physiology|cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)]] within the subarachnoid space. This CSF effectively forms a water jacket that buoys up the spinal cord and protects it from external influences. Therefore it is extremely important that the CSF has the appropriate properties in order to undertake this role. The vasculature of the spinal cord therefore has to provide the appropriate level of oxygen, pressure, pH and nutrients to maintain homeostasis of the spinal cord. As the CSF also performs this role within the skull, the vasculature of the brain has an important relationship with every aspect of the ventricles and subarachnoid space within the central nervous system.
 
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<br />
 
  
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===Arterial Supply===
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*
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The spinal cord is supplied by three main arteries that run along its length; the '''Ventral Spinal Artery''', and paired '''Dorsolateral Spinal Arteries'''. The ventral spinal artery is the largest and follows the ventral fissure of the spinal cord. The dorsolateral arteries run close to the groove from which the dorsal nerve roots arise. Together with these three main arteries, the spinal cord is also supplied by branches from regional arteries including branches in the cervical, intercostal, lumbar and sacral regions. These regional arteries enter the spine at the intervertebral foramina, often accompanying the roots of spinal nerves. These regional arteries also form plexuses into which the three main longitudinal arteries run. The number and type of arteries that enter the spine from regional branches varies with species and also between individuals.
 
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<br />
 
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The '''ventral spinal artery''' supplies the main "core" of the spinal cord, i.e. the [[Central Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology#Grey Matter|grey matter]]. It also partially supplies the white matter via the ventral fissure, although the majority of the white matter is supplied by radial branches of the dorsolateral arteries. There are also a number of anastamoses between both sets of arteries.
 
  
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===Venous Supply===
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==Innervation==
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Along the length of the spinal cord runs the vertebral venous plexus which drains the blood from the vertebrae and surrounding musculature. This venous plexus gives rise to veins that then leave the vertebrae via the intervertebral foramina and then go on to join the major venous channels of the neck and the trunk; namely the vertebral, cranial caval, azygous and caudal caval veins. 
 
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<br />
 
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<br />
 
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The venous plexus consists of paired channels within the epidural space that lie in a '''ventral''' position to the spinal cord. Each side of the pair is connected to its opposing plexus around the vertebrae resulting in a ladder-type pattern of venous vessels. The connections between each side are via the intervertebral foramina and these vessels are in close proximity to the spinal nerves.
 
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<br />
 
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<br />
 
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The veins around the plexuses have no valves and can theoretically pass blood in either direction. The vessels are able to adjust their size/pressure to compensate for intrathoracic pressure. This intermittency of flow causes an increased risk of septic or neoplastic disease within the vertebral column. Where blood is impeded or where flow may become temporarily held stagnant, this may allow tumor seeds or micro-organisms to settle within tributaries.
 
  
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===Spinal Cord Blood Supply Considerations===
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*
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When giving an epidural or a subarachnoid puncture, the above described anatomy results in there being an increased risk of haemorrhage. The risk of haemorrhage is greatest at the atlanto-occipital space where there are particularly large tributaries.
 
  
 
==Lymphatics==
 
==Lymphatics==
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There are no lymphatic vessels or nodes within the spinal cord or other central nervous tissue.
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 +
*
  
 
==Histology==
 
==Histology==
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[[File:Anterior spinal cord - very low mag.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Ventral Fissure Spinal Cord (low mag) Note: Image is effectively upside down]]
 
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===Macroscopic Histology===
 
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The image shows a cross section of the ventral portion of the spinal cord using an H&E stain. The gray matter of the spinal cord appears roughly in the form of a butterfly and is stained darker on this image. Only the ventral horns of the gray matter are visible on this image. The connection between the two sides of the butterfly is called the  "gray commissure". Cell bodies within the ventral horns of the gray matter can be so large that they can often be seen macroscopically.
 
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<br />
 
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<br />
 
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The layer of tissue that can be seen surrounding the spinal cord is the pia mater and is a pale staining fibrous material. Blood vessels can also be made seen and are closely associated with the pia mater. The ventral spinal artery  and vein can be seen adjacent to the ventral fissure.
 
  
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===Microscopic Histology===
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*
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Under high magnification neuronal cell bodies within the spinal cord will become visible. The nucleus within these cell bodies will be large and spherical and the cell body itself will have several long projections. Surrounding these obvious cell bodies will be an array of other nerve fibres or cell bodies that are much harder to interpret. These will be a mixture of neuroglial cells and the actual fibres from other nerves. These areas of the spinal cord are called "neuropil".
 
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<br />
 
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<br />
 
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If stains such as toluidine blue are used, Nissl bodies within the cytoplasm of the cell bodies may become visible, appearing as large dark staining bodies. Nissl bodies do not extend into the axon hillock. Neuropil stains very faintly using toluidine blue.
 
  
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More on [[Central Nervous System - Histology|central nervous system histology]].
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==Species Differences==
  
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== Links ==
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*
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[[Nervous_and_Special_Senses_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|Central Nervous System & Peripheral Nervous System Physiology]]
 
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<br />
 
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[[Spinal_Column_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology|Spinal Column Anatomy and Physiology]]
 
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<br>
 
  
 +
==Links==
  
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{{Template:Learning
 
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|dragster = [[Types of Nervous Tissue Histology Resource (I)]]<br>[[Types of Nervous Tissue Histology Resource (II)]]
 
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}}
 
  
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{{OpenPages}}
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[[Category:Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology]]
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[[Category:Nervous_System_-_Anatomy_&_Physiology]]  
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[[Category:To Do - A&P]]
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[[Category:A&P Done]]
 

Revision as of 20:33, 26 December 2010


 This article is still under construction.


Introduction

The spinal cord can be divided to several regions:

Region Segments
Cervical C1-C6
Cervicothoracic C7-T2
Thoracolumbar T3-L3
Lumbosacral L3-S2
Sacral S3 onwards


Nerves originating from the spinal cord and the segmental spinal nerves innervate the limbs. The forelimb nerves include:

      • Suprascapular (C5-6)
      • Musculocutaneous (C5-7)
      • Ulna/median (Originates from the brachial plexus, which is formed from C5-T1)
      • Radial (C5-T1)

The hindlimb nerves include:

      • Obturator (L2-4)
      • Femoral (L2-4)
      • Sciatic (L4-S3)

The sciatic nerve branches to the tibial nerve and the peroneal nerve.

Structure and Function

Structures Present Function
Spinal Cord Marginal layer - Axons, white matter

Mantle - Cell bodies, grey matter

Spinal canal

Conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and autonomic) to the brain, conducts motor information from the brain to various effectors and acts as a minor reflex center.

Marginal Layer

Mantle

Spinal Canal

Function

  • ==Basic Concepts==
Cerebrum, brain stem and cerebellum. Image courtesy of BioMed Archive

Components

  • The central nervous system consists of:
    • The brain
      • Prefix = "encephalo"
    • The spinal cord
      • Prefix = "myelo"

Function

  1. Sensory neurons from both the internal and external environment relay information to the CNS.
  2. The CNS processes sensory information and intitiates motor outputs.
  3. Effector and motor neurons from the CNS relay the appropriate outputs to effector organs.

The Autonomic Nervous System

  • The autonomic nervous system relays sensory information from, and motor information to, the internal environment.
    • It therefore plays an important role in the maintenance of homeostasis.

The Somatosensory Nervous System

  • The somatosensory nervous system relays sensory information from, and motor information to, the external environment.

White and Grey Matter

White Matter

  • White matter consists of accumulations of myelinated axons.
    • Myelinated axons are wrapped in myelin
      • Myelin is compsed of lipid and protein in an 80:20 ratio.
      • It insulates axons to give efficient action potential conduction.
      • Myelin is provided by:
        • Oligodendrocytes in the CNS
          • Myelinate several neurons at once.
          • Respond poorly in injury.
            White and grey matter. Image courtesy of BioMed Archive
        • Schwann cells in the PNS
          • Myelinate one axon only.
  • A "funiculus" is a large region of white matter in the spinal cord.

Grey Matter

  • The outer portions of the cerebral cortex and the inner portions of the spinal cord are composed of grey matter.
    • Grey matter is also found in coloumns and scattered in brainstem nuclei.
  • Composed of neuronal cell bodies, plus glial cells.

Upper and Lower Motor Neurons

Lower Motor Neuron (LMN)

  • LMNs are efferent neurons which connect the CNS to smooth or skeletal muscle.
    • Autonomic LMNs connect to smooth muscle.
    • Somatic LMNs connect to skeletal muscle.
      • Those innervating the muscles of the axial and peripheral skeleton have their cells bodies in the ventral horn of the spinal cord.
  • Injury causes LMN weakness.
    • This is characterised by:
      • Depressed reflexes
      • Decreased tone
      • Neurogenic muscle atrophy

Upper Motor Neuron (UMN)

  • The upper motor neuron comprises the motor system of the CNS. This is responsible for:
    • Initiating voluntary movement.
    • Maintenance of tone and posture.
  • In man, direct connections exist between neurons in the motor cortex and LMNs in the spinal cord.
    • This is known as the "pyramidal system".
  • In animals, there are scattered groups of interconnected neurons in the cortex and brainstem, which ultimately synapse with LMNs in the brainstem and spinal cord.
    • The "extrapyramidal system".
  • UMN injury results in:
    1. Increased extensor tone, giving:
      • Stiffness
      • Spasticity
    2. Delay in the onset of protraction, and a longer stride
    3. Disinhibition of the LMN relfex ability.
      • This causes increased reflexes.
    4. Inability to stimulate LMN.
      • UMN weakness results.

Vasculature

Innervation

Lymphatics

Histology

Species Differences

Links

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