Difference between revisions of "Neurotransmitters - Anatomy & Physiology"

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[[Image:nervestructure.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Nerve - © fig.cox.miami.edu 2008]]
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==Introduction==
 +
'''Neurotransmitters''' are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals between neurones and cells. They can be classified into two main groups; '''small-molecule transmitters (SMT)''' and '''neuropeptides'''. SMTs are synthesised within nerve terminals via enzymes that are produced within the cell body. Within most nerve junctions, the terminal membrane of the nerve contains numerous specific transport proteins that facilitate the transport of the majority of the SMTs back into the nerve terminal, effectively recycling the neurotransmitter. Neuropeptides are constructed of around 3 - 40 amio acid molecules that are synthesised within the cell body and are then transported to along the axon to the nerve terminal within vesicles running along microtubules. Neuropeptides are broken down by extracellular enzymes called '''peptidases''' once the neurotransmitter has been released. A small proportion of neuropeptides can bind to postsynaptic receptors in the nerve terminal membrane and can be taken up by endocytosis, although the degree of recycling of neuropeptides is lower than that of SMTs.
 +
==Types of neurotransmitter==
 +
===Small-molecule Neurotransmitters===
 +
There are two major sub-groups of SMTs; '''amino acids''' and '''biogenic amines'''.
 +
====Amino Acids===
 +
'''Amino acid glutamate''' is the most common excitatory SMT in the [[Nervous_and_Special_Senses_-_Anatomy_%26_Physiology#Central_Nervous_System_.28CNS.29|central nervous system]] whilst '''gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)''' is the most common inhibitory SMT. Other amino acid SMTs include '''aspartate''' and '''glycine'''.
 +
====Biogenic Amines====
 +
Biogenic amines are synthesised from only several types of amino acids and dependant on which amino acids are used in their formation depends on their classification. Biogenic amines that are derived from the amino acid tyrosine are classified as '''catecholamines''' and include the SMTs '''norepinephrine''' (noradrenaline), '''epinephrine''' (adrenaline) and '''dopamine'''. The biogenic amines that is dervied from the amino acid '''tryptophane''' is called '''serotonin (5-HT)''' whilst the SMT derived from '''histidine''' is called '''histamine'''. 
 +
====Other SMTs====
 +
Other common SMTs include '''acetylcholine''' (ACh) and '''nitric oxide'''. Ach is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the peripheral nervous system.
 +
These include:
 +
 +
* '''Acetylcholine''' (Ach)
 +
 +
* '''Monoamines''' - epinephrine (E), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and melatonin.
 +
 +
*Three or four amino acids, depending on exact definition used: primarily glutamic acid, gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), aspartic acid & glycine.
 +
 +
* '''Purines''' -(Adenosine, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and their derivatives.
 +
 +
* '''Peptides''' - vasopressin, somatostatin etc.
 +
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* '''Histamine''' (HA)
 +
 +
* '''Single ions''' - such as synaptically released zinc.
 +
 +
* '''Gaseous''' - nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO).
 +
 +
==Function==
 +
 +
Release of excitatory neurotransmitters from the presynaptic membrane cause channels in the postsynaptic membrane to open and cause an increase in sodium ion concentration within the postsynaptic cell and a decrease in potassium ion concentration. This leads to a depolarisation of the postsynaptic cell, which is propagated further along the axon by an action potential (AP).
 +
 +
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell making it unable to generate an action potential.
 +
 +
Receptors determine the reaction of the neurotransmitter meaning that the same neurotransmitter may cause an excitatory effect on some membranes whilst an inhibitory effect on others e.g ACH can be either excitatory to skeletal muscle cells or inhibitory to both smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
 +
 +
==Actions==
 +
 +
{| style="width:50%; height:200px" border="1"
 +
 +
! '''Neurotransmitter'''
 +
! '''Action'''
 +
 +
|-
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| '''Acetylcholine (Ach)'''
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| Skeletal muscle movement (sympathetic)
 +
Visceral movement (parasympathetic)
 +
 +
 +
|-
 +
| '''Epinephrine'''
 +
| As norepinephrine, produced by adrenal glands.
 +
 +
|-
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| '''Norepinephrine'''
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| Conciousness (sympathetic).
 +
 +
|-
 +
| '''Dopamine'''
 +
| Addiction, love, motivation.
  
−
==Introduction==
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|-
−
[[File:Synapse diag1.svg|thumb|right|250px|Synapse diagram - click image for image key]]
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| '''Seretonin'''
−
[[Image:Aspinall Slide5.JPG|thumb|right|250px|<small>Image from [http://www.elsevierhealth.co.uk/veterinary-nursing/spe-60136/ Aspinall, The Complete Textbook of Veterinary Nursing], Elsevier Health Sciences, ''All rights reserved''</small>]]
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| Emoticon, conciousness, sleep and thermoregulation.
−
'''Neurotransmitters''' are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals between [[Neurons - Anatomy & Physiology|neurones]] and cells. They can be classified into two main groups; '''small-molecule transmitters (SMT)''' and '''neuropeptides'''.  
 
  
−
SMTs are synthesised within nerve terminals via enzymes that are produced within the cell body. Within most nerve junctions, the terminal membrane of the nerve contains numerous specific transport proteins that facilitate the transport of the majority of the SMTs back into the nerve terminal, effectively recycling the neurotransmitter.  
+
|-
 +
| '''Melatonin'''
 +
|Regulates the onset of sleep and seasonal changes in the body e.g winter weight gain.
  
−
Neuropeptides are constructed of around 3 - 40 amino acid molecules that are synthesised within the cell body and are then transported to along the axon to the nerve terminal within vesicles running along microtubules. Neuropeptides are broken down by extracellular enzymes called '''peptidases''' once the neurotransmitter has been released. A small proportion of neuropeptides can bind to postsynaptic receptors in the nerve terminal membrane and can be taken up by endocytosis, although the degree of recycling of neuropeptides is lower than that of SMTs.  
+
|-
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| '''ATP'''  
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| Timing mechanism of G proteins by displacement of ADP.
  
−
==Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters==
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|-
−
There are two major sub-groups of SMTs; '''amino acids''' and '''biogenic amines'''. All SMTs play an important role within the central nervous system with the exception of acetylcholine and norepinephrine which both are important within the peripheral nervous system.
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| '''GTP'''
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|Timing mechanism of G proteins by displacement of GDP.
  
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===Amino Acids===
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|-
−
Amino acid '''glutamate''' is the most common '''excitatory''' SMT in the [[Nervous and Special Senses - Anatomy & Physiology#Central Nervous System (CNS)|central nervous system]] whilst '''gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)''' is the most common '''inhibitory''' SMT. Other amino acid SMTs include '''aspartate''' and '''glycine'''.
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| '''Vasopressin'''
−
<br><br>
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|Metabolic rate, metabolism.
−
When '''glutamate''' is released it facilitates the opening of sodium channels within the post-synaptic membrane allowing sodium ions to enter the membrane and causing depolarisation. Therefore '''glutamate''' makes it easier for the cell to reach its depolarisation threshold and generate an action potential. Due to this, '''Glutamate''' is classified as an excitatory neurotransmitter.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Glycine''' is present in the spinal cord and is crucial for limb movement; in particular the motor function associated with limb reflexes. When both '''glycine''' and '''GABA''' are released they result in the opening of chloride ion channels within the post synaptic membrane resulting in the membrane becoming hyperpolarised. The cytosolic side of the membrane becomes more negative. Therefore both neurotransmitters make it more difficult for the cell to reach its depolarisation threshold to generate an action potential, thus classed as inhibitory.
 
  
−
<gallery widths="150px" perrow="3">
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|-
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Image:GABA.svg|'''GABA'''
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| '''Somatostatin'''
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Image:Glutamic_Acid.png|'''Glutamic Acid'''
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|Inhibits production of other hormones.
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Image:Aspartic_Acid.png|'''Aspartic Acid'''
 
−
</gallery>
 
  
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===Biogenic Amines===
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|-
−
Biogenic amines are synthesised from only several types of amino acids. Which amino acids are used in their formation depends on their classification.  
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| '''Histamine'''
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| Gastric secretions increased, dilation of capillaries, constriction of bronchial smooth muscle and decreased blood pressure.
  
−
Biogenic amines that are derived from the amino acid tyrosine are classified as '''catecholamines''' and include the SMTs '''norepinephrine (NE)''' (noradrenaline), '''epinephrine (E)''' (adrenaline), '''melatonin''' and '''dopamine (DA)'''. Adrenergic neurons release norepinephrine.  
+
|-
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| '''Zinc'''
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|Release of neuropeptide Y.
  
−
The biogenic amine that is derived from the amino acid '''tryptophane''' is called '''serotonin (5-HT)''' whilst the SMT derived from '''histidine''' is called '''histamine (HA)'''. Serotonergic neurons release serotonin. Whilst these SMTs are primarily of importance in the central nervous system, norepinephrine is predominantly found in the peripheral nervous system.
+
|-
−
<br><br>
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| '''NO'''
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'''Epinephrine''' is produced by the adrenal glands. It is primarily involved in an overall activation of the sympathetic nervous system and is involved in the management of stress. '''Norepinephrine''' is also produced by adrenal glands and is involved in the initiation and maintainance of consciousness within the sympathetic nervous system. Both types of neurotransmitter utilise α or β receptors and are metabotropic.
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|Enlargement of genital organs leading to erection.
−
:If an α<sub>1</sub> adrenergic receptor is bound this will result in depolarisation of the cell and vasoconstriction of the skin and viscera.
 
−
:If a β<sub>1</sub> receptor is bound this will also result in cellular depolarisation and an increase in heart rate and contractility.
 
−
:If a β<sub>2</sub> receptor is bound this will result in hyperpolarisation of the cell which will cause dilation of the bronchioles of the lung.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Dopamine''' is involved in motivation as well as love and addiction. It is effectively a 'reward system' for the brain. Dopamine also affects the way in which the basal ganglia of the brain affect our movements and a shortage of dopamine can result in diseases such as Parkinson's. Dopamine is the primary neuroendocrine regulator of [[Lactation - Endocrine Control - Anatomy & Physiology|'''prolactin''']] from the anterior [[Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology|pituitary gland]]. It is thus often called prolactin-inhibiting hormone in reproduction. Dopamine produced by the [[Hypothalamus - Anatomy & Physiology|hypothalamus]] is secreted via the hypothalamo-hypophysal blood vessels which supply the pituitary gland. Secretion of prolactin via lactotrope cells within the pituitary is inhibited by dopamine.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Serotonin''' is involved in emotions, mood, sexuality, consciousness, sleep and thermoregulation. Serotonin is utilised by the central nervous system and the gastro-intestinal system. Serotonin has also been linked to mechanisms controlling pulmonary and cerebral vascular vasoconstriction.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Melatonin''' is responsible for the regulation of onset of sleep and also for seasonal changes in the body such as winter weight gain and mating seasons.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Histamine''' release results in increased gastric secretions, dilation of capillaries, constriction of bronchial smooth muscle and decreased blood pressure.
 
  
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<gallery widths="150px" perrow="3">
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|-
−
Image:Dopamine.png|'''Dopamine'''
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| '''CO'''
−
Image:Epinephrine.svg|'''Epinephrine'''
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|Sleep cycle.
−
</gallery>
 
  
−
===Other SMTs===
+
|-
−
Other common SMTs include acetylcholine, ATP and nitric oxide.  
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| '''Glutamate'''
 +
| Exitatory, found in CNS.
  
−
'''Acetylcholine (ACh)''' is the most common '''excitatory''' neurotransmitter in the '''peripheral nervous system'''. Cholinergic neurons release ACh and for example, are found in the [[Muscles - Anatomy & Physiology#Neurogenic Contraction|neuromuscular junction]]. When ACh is released, it facilitates the opening of sodium channels within the post-synaptic membrane allowing sodium ions to enter the membrane and causing depolarisation. Therefore ACh makes it easier for the cell to reach its depolarisation threshold and generate an action potential. ACh has an effect on the post-synaptic membrane in skeletal muscle via '''nicotinic receptors''', which are ionotropic (see below). ACh also exerts an effect on smooth muscle via the parasympathetic nervous system via '''muscarinic receptors''', which are metabotropic (see below).  
+
|-
 +
| '''GABA'''
 +
| Inhibitory, found in CNS.
  
−
Ach is primarily involved in skeletal muscle movement within the sympathetic nervous system and visceral movements as part of the parasympathetic nervous system. When binding to '''muscarinic''' receptors, ACh can have a number of different effects dependant on the type of receptor.
+
|-
−
:If an '''M2''' receptor is bound this will result in hyperpolarisation of the cell and a slowing of the rate of spontaneous contraction of the heart.
+
| '''Glycine'''
−
:If an '''M3''' or an '''M5''' receptor is bound this will result in depolarisation of the cell and contraction of smooth muscle within glands.
+
| Spinal reflexes, motor.
−
<br><br>
+
|}
−
'''Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)''', as well as having many important '''intracellular functions''', is an important neurotransmitter and also has an '''autocrine''' and '''paracrine''' function. ATP belongs to the '''purines''' SMT group. All synaptic vesicles released by the terminal membrane of a nerve contain ATP as well as other neurotransmitters, although ATP can only function as a neurotransmitter in its own right if the post-synaptic terminal membrane contains ATP receptors. These ATP receptors are referred to as '''purinergic receptors'''. A pre-synaptic nerve terminal or terminal membrane never releases multiple types of SMT in addition to ATP, although it is common that neuropeptides are released in addition to ATP and SMTs. Other SMTs within the purine group include '''Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)''' and their derivatives.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
Although '''nitric oxide (NO)''' is a neurotransmitter, its characteristics differ from those discussed above. NO relies on calcium ion activation of the enzyme '''nitric oxide synthase (NOS)''' which is found throughout the nervous system and is the enzyme that is responsible for catalysing NO from the amino acid '''L-arginine'''. NO has a very short half-life and is highly reactive. It is able to pass easily through lipid membranes. What makes NO differ from the SMTs above is that is can be released in all directions rather than pre-synaptically as per the classical SMTs. Therefore NO is able to act as a signalling pathway for the post-synaptic neuron to affect the pre-synpatic neuron. Nitrous oxide is involved in enlargement of the genital organs leading to erection.
 
  
−
<gallery widths="150px" perrow="3">
+
==Neurotransmitter systems==
−
Image:Stickstoffmonoxid.png|'''Nitrous Oxide'''
 
−
Image:Acetylcholine.svg|'''Acetylcholine'''
 
−
</gallery>
 
  
−
==Neuropeptides==
+
See somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
−
The neuropeptide group of neurotransmitters contain a wide range of molecules of which only the major transmitters are included below. These include; '''enkephalin''', '''subtance P''', '''LHRH''', '''[[vasopressin]]''', '''cholecystokinin/CKK''', '''vasoactive intesinal peptide (VIP)''', '''endorphin''', '''neurotensin''', '''TRH''', '''angiotensin-II''', '''somatostatin''' and '''oxytocin'''. These neuropeptides have a wide range of effects throughout the nervous system. Many of these neuropeptides are released from nerve terminals but also as hormones from endocrine cells, cholecystokinin is an example.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)''' plays a role within the intestines and acts to greatly increase the secretion of water and electrolytes. VIP also causes dilation of the smooth muscle within the peripheral smooth muscles and inhibits [[Gut Endocrine Function - Anatomy & Physiology|gastrin-stimulated]] gastric acid secretion. The overall effect of VIP is to increase gastric motility.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
The neuropeptide '''vasopressin''' is responsible for metabolism and maintainance of the metabolic rate.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Substance P''' is involved in the transmission of pain from peripheral receptors to the central nervous system. It acts to increase the sensation, and therefore the consciousness, of pain and is released when [[Pain|nociceptors]] are activated. '''Enkaphalin''' acts to inhibit the release of substance P therefore acting to diminish the sensation of pain.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
Endorphins and enkephalins are both examples of '''[[opioids]]''' and act within neuronal synapses to reduce the sensation of pain acting as natural pain killers. In humans, it has been shown that these neuropeptides also lead to a sense of euphoria. Both of these molecules belong to the same opioid category as morphine and heroin. They are produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus and they chemically resemble opiates in their ability to produce analgesia and a sense of well-being. Endorphin has also been shown to stimulate dopaminergic neurones. In addition to this, endorphin can act to inhibit the release of '''substance P''' and therefore decrease the conscious perception of pain.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Cholecystokinin''' or '''CKK''' is secreted as a hormone and is involved in [[Gut Endocrine Function - Anatomy & Physiology|gastric enzyme secretion]]. CKK affects the secretion of pancreatic enzymes but also promotes feelings of satiety within the cortex of the brain following a meal. It is also involved in smooth muscle contraction within the small intestine.
 
−
<br><br>
 
−
'''Somatostatin''' or '''growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)''' is a regulatory molecule within the endocrine system but also affects neurotransmission via it's interaction with G-protein coupled somatostatin receptors. It also inhibits the production of many other secondary hormones.
 
  
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<gallery widths="150px" perrow="3">
+
== Degradation and elimination==
−
Image:Alpha-endorphin.svg|'''Alpha-Endorphin'''
 
−
Image:NeuropeptideY_1RON.png|'''Neuropeptide Y'''
 
−
Image:Oxytocin.png|'''Oxytocin'''
 
−
</gallery>
 
  
−
==Other Types of Neurotransmitter==
+
*Acetylcholine is derived from Choline.
−
In many neuronal synapses, not only do the post-synaptic membranes contain receptors for neurotransmitters, they also contain ion channels. In many cases the neurotransmitter receptors and ion channels are directly linked giving rise to '''ionotropic receptors'''. When a neurotransmitter binds its relevant receptor, this also may affect the gating of adjacent ion channels, either opening or closing the channel. Ionotrophic receptors such as this are responsible for the fastest type of synaptic transmission. An example of an ionotrophic receptor is '''zinc''' which is synaptically released via this mechanism. Zinc is associated with the release of another type of neurotransmitter, neuropeptide Y.
+
*Serotonin [5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] is derived from  Tryptophan.
 +
*GABA is derived from Glutamate.  
 +
*Histamine is derived from Histidine.
 +
*Epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine are derived from Tyrosine.
 +
*Adenosine is derived from ATP.
 +
*Nitric oxide is derived from Arginine.  
  
−
Other ion channel receptors, '''metabotrophic receptors''', exist where the ion channel is less well associated with the neurotransmitter receptors. These receptors are affected indirectly via '''G-proteins''' or '''intracellular secondary messengers''' altering the status of the gate once an appropriate signal has been received. Despite relying on an intermediate messenger system, metabotrophic receptors can also propagate rapid signal transfers, although not as rapid as ionotrophic receptors.
+
Neurotransmitters must be broken down once they reach the post-synaptic cell to end the excitatory or inhibitory signal and prevent over stimulation/perminent inhibition.
  
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==Function==
+
*e.g, '''ACH''' an excitatory neurotransmitter, is broken down by '''acetylcholinesterase''' (AchE).  
−
The release of excitatory neurotransmitters from the pre-synaptic membrane causes channels in the post-synaptic membrane to open and cause an increase in sodium ion concentration within the postsynaptic cell and a decrease in potassium ion concentration. This leads to a depolarisation of the postsynaptic cell, which is [[Neurons - Anatomy & Physiology#Nerve Impulse Propagation|propagated further along the axon]] by an action potential (AP). Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell making it unable to generate an action potential.
 
−
 
−
Post-synaptic receptors determine the reaction of the neurotransmitter meaning that the same neurotransmitter may cause an excitatory effect on some membranes whilst exerting an inhibitory effect on others e.g ACH can be either excitatory to skeletal muscle cells or inhibitory to both smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
 
  
 +
*Choline is taken up and recycled by the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize more ACH.
  
−
{{review}}
+
*Other neurotransmitters such as dopamine are able to diffuse away and are eliminated from the body via the kidneys, or destroyed in the liver.
  
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==Webinars==
 
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<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/neurology/webinars/feed</rss>
 
  
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[[Category:A&P Done]]
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{{unfinished}}
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[[Category:To Do - A&P]]
 
[[Category:Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology]]
 
[[Category:Nervous System - Anatomy & Physiology]]

Revision as of 10:15, 23 August 2011

Nerve - © fig.cox.miami.edu 2008

Introduction

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals between neurones and cells. They can be classified into two main groups; small-molecule transmitters (SMT) and neuropeptides. SMTs are synthesised within nerve terminals via enzymes that are produced within the cell body. Within most nerve junctions, the terminal membrane of the nerve contains numerous specific transport proteins that facilitate the transport of the majority of the SMTs back into the nerve terminal, effectively recycling the neurotransmitter. Neuropeptides are constructed of around 3 - 40 amio acid molecules that are synthesised within the cell body and are then transported to along the axon to the nerve terminal within vesicles running along microtubules. Neuropeptides are broken down by extracellular enzymes called peptidases once the neurotransmitter has been released. A small proportion of neuropeptides can bind to postsynaptic receptors in the nerve terminal membrane and can be taken up by endocytosis, although the degree of recycling of neuropeptides is lower than that of SMTs.

Types of neurotransmitter

Small-molecule Neurotransmitters

There are two major sub-groups of SMTs; amino acids and biogenic amines.

=Amino Acids

Amino acid glutamate is the most common excitatory SMT in the central nervous system whilst gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the most common inhibitory SMT. Other amino acid SMTs include aspartate and glycine.

Biogenic Amines

Biogenic amines are synthesised from only several types of amino acids and dependant on which amino acids are used in their formation depends on their classification. Biogenic amines that are derived from the amino acid tyrosine are classified as catecholamines and include the SMTs norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline) and dopamine. The biogenic amines that is dervied from the amino acid tryptophane is called serotonin (5-HT) whilst the SMT derived from histidine is called histamine.

Other SMTs

Other common SMTs include acetylcholine (ACh) and nitric oxide. Ach is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the peripheral nervous system. These include:

  • Acetylcholine (Ach)
  • Monoamines - epinephrine (E), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and melatonin.
  • Three or four amino acids, depending on exact definition used: primarily glutamic acid, gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), aspartic acid & glycine.
  • Purines -(Adenosine, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and their derivatives.
  • Peptides - vasopressin, somatostatin etc.
  • Histamine (HA)
  • Single ions - such as synaptically released zinc.
  • Gaseous - nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO).

Function

Release of excitatory neurotransmitters from the presynaptic membrane cause channels in the postsynaptic membrane to open and cause an increase in sodium ion concentration within the postsynaptic cell and a decrease in potassium ion concentration. This leads to a depolarisation of the postsynaptic cell, which is propagated further along the axon by an action potential (AP).

Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell making it unable to generate an action potential.

Receptors determine the reaction of the neurotransmitter meaning that the same neurotransmitter may cause an excitatory effect on some membranes whilst an inhibitory effect on others e.g ACH can be either excitatory to skeletal muscle cells or inhibitory to both smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.

Actions

Neurotransmitter Action
Acetylcholine (Ach) Skeletal muscle movement (sympathetic)

Visceral movement (parasympathetic)


Epinephrine As norepinephrine, produced by adrenal glands.
Norepinephrine Conciousness (sympathetic).
Dopamine Addiction, love, motivation.
Seretonin Emoticon, conciousness, sleep and thermoregulation.
Melatonin Regulates the onset of sleep and seasonal changes in the body e.g winter weight gain.
ATP Timing mechanism of G proteins by displacement of ADP.
GTP Timing mechanism of G proteins by displacement of GDP.
Vasopressin Metabolic rate, metabolism.
Somatostatin Inhibits production of other hormones.
Histamine Gastric secretions increased, dilation of capillaries, constriction of bronchial smooth muscle and decreased blood pressure.
Zinc Release of neuropeptide Y.
NO Enlargement of genital organs leading to erection.
CO Sleep cycle.
Glutamate Exitatory, found in CNS.
GABA Inhibitory, found in CNS.
Glycine Spinal reflexes, motor.

Neurotransmitter systems

See somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Degradation and elimination

  • Acetylcholine is derived from Choline.
  • Serotonin [5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] is derived from Tryptophan.
  • GABA is derived from Glutamate.
  • Histamine is derived from Histidine.
  • Epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine are derived from Tyrosine.
  • Adenosine is derived from ATP.
  • Nitric oxide is derived from Arginine.

Neurotransmitters must be broken down once they reach the post-synaptic cell to end the excitatory or inhibitory signal and prevent over stimulation/perminent inhibition.

  • e.g, ACH an excitatory neurotransmitter, is broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AchE).
  • Choline is taken up and recycled by the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize more ACH.
  • Other neurotransmitters such as dopamine are able to diffuse away and are eliminated from the body via the kidneys, or destroyed in the liver.



 This article is still under construction.


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