Difference between revisions of "Gastric Impaction - Horse"
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
| (35 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| − | {{ | + | {{OpenPagesTop}} |
| + | Also known as: '''''Colic — Stomach Impaction — Stomach Simple Obstruction — Stomach Mechanical Obstruction | ||
| − | + | ==Introduction== | |
| − | + | Gastric impaction is rare in the horse.<ref>Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) ''Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery'', International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.</ref> It can occur spontaneously as a primary condition but is often secondary to other disturbances in the intestinal tract of the stomach such as ulceration or fibrosis at the pylorus.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> The condition typically causes mild to moderate colic that does not resolve with routine medical treatment.<ref name="Bliks">Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref> | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | ''' | ||
| − | ''' | ||
| − | |||
| − | + | See also: '''[[Colic, Gastric Causes]]''' | |
| − | Gastric | ||
==Aetiology== | ==Aetiology== | ||
| − | The specific cause of the impaction is not always apparent( | + | The specific cause of the impaction is not always apparent<ref name="Sanchez">Sanchez, L.C (2010) 'Diseases Of The Stomach' in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), Saunders, Chapter 15.</ref> but the obstruction typically consists of excessive dry, coarse ingesta such as straw bedding or poor quality forage.<ref name="Sanchez">Sanchez, L.C (2010) 'Diseases Of The Stomach' in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), Saunders, Chapter 15.</ref> It may also be composed of foreign bodies, ingested materials that form a mass (such as persimmon seeds or mesquite beans<ref>Kellam, L.L, Johnson, P.J, Kramer, J, Keegan, K.G (2000) Gastric impaction and obstruction of the small intestine associated with persimmon phytobezoar in a horse. ''J Am Vet Med Assoc'', 216:1279-1281. In: Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref><ref>Cummings, C.A, Copedge, K.J, Confer, A.W (1997) Equine gastric impaction, ulceration, and perforation due to persimmon (''Diospyros virginiana'') ingestion. ''J Vet Diagn Invest'', 9:311-313. In: Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref><ref>Honnas, C.M, Schumacher, J (1985) Primary gastric impaction in a pony. ''J Am Vet Med Assoc'', 187:501-502. In: Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref>) or feeds that tend to swell after ingestion. Gastric impaction may be the result of a gastric atony or defective secretion.<ref name="Edwards">Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) ''Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery'', International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.</ref> |
===Predisposing factors=== | ===Predisposing factors=== | ||
| − | *Ingestion of certain feedstuffs including sugar beet pulp, bran, straw, wheat and barley. Beet pulp and bran can become dessicated within the stomach and may not become rehydrated by water or gastric secretions.( | + | *Ingestion of certain feedstuffs including sugar beet pulp, bran, straw, wheat and barley. Beet pulp and bran can become dessicated within the stomach and may not become rehydrated by water or gastric secretions.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> |
| − | *Dental disorders - roughage may be only partially masticated.( | + | *Dental disorders - roughage may be only partially masticated.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> |
*Feeding a horse that has signs of colic - there may be poor gastric emptying associated with generalised decreased gastrointestinal motility | *Feeding a horse that has signs of colic - there may be poor gastric emptying associated with generalised decreased gastrointestinal motility | ||
| − | *Rapid consumption of feedstuffs.( | + | *Rapid consumption of feedstuffs.<ref name="Sanchez">Sanchez, L.C (2010) 'Diseases Of The Stomach' in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), Saunders, Chapter 15.</ref> |
| − | *Inadequate water consumption.( | + | *Inadequate water consumption.<ref name="Sanchez">Sanchez, L.C (2010) 'Diseases Of The Stomach' in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), Saunders, Chapter 15.</ref> |
| − | *Secondary gastric impaction has been related to ragwort poisoning( | + | *Secondary gastric impaction has been related to ragwort poisoning<ref>Milne, E.M, Pogson, D.M, Doxey, D.L (1990) Secondary gastric impaction associated with ragwort poisoning in three ponies. ''Vet Rec'', 126(20):502-4.</ref> |
==Clinical signs== | ==Clinical signs== | ||
| − | The colic associated with gastric impaction varies from mild and chronic to acute and severe.( | + | The [[Colic Diagnosis - Clinical Signs|colic]] associated with gastric impaction varies from mild and chronic to acute and severe.<ref name="Bliks">Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref> Other signs reported include: |
*Anorexia | *Anorexia | ||
*Lethargy | *Lethargy | ||
| Line 32: | Line 27: | ||
*Dropping of feed | *Dropping of feed | ||
*Bruxism | *Bruxism | ||
| − | *Salivation ( | + | *Salivation<ref name="Edwards">Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) ''Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery'', International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.</ref> |
| − | *Insidious weight loss (if chronic)( | + | *Insidious weight loss (if chronic)<ref name="Edwards">Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) ''Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery'', International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.</ref> |
| − | * | + | *Spontaneous reflux with gastric contents visible at the nares (in severe cases)<ref name="Sanchez">Sanchez, L.C (2010) 'Diseases Of The Stomach' in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), Saunders, Chapter 15.</ref> |
| − | In mild cases where signs resolve spontaneously or with analgesics, owners my continue to feed the horse, which only serves to worsen the impaction.( | + | In mild cases where signs resolve spontaneously or with analgesics, owners my continue to feed the horse, which only serves to worsen the impaction.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> |
==Diagnosis== | ==Diagnosis== | ||
| − | *Gastric impaction is suspected if a [[Colic Diagnosis - Naso-gastric Intubation|'''nasogastric tube''']] cannot be passed or if poorly macerated or digested feed material is recovered from the tube when the horse has been starved for several hours. With gastric distension, the gastoroesophageal junction can become distorted making it difficult to pass the tube.( | + | *Gastric impaction is suspected if a [[Colic Diagnosis - Naso-gastric Intubation|'''nasogastric tube''']] cannot be passed or if poorly macerated or digested feed material is recovered from the tube when the horse has been starved for several hours. With gastric distension, the gastoroesophageal junction can become distorted making it difficult to pass the tube.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> |
| − | *On [[Colic Diagnosis - Rectal Examination|'''rectal examination''']], the spleen may be displaced caudally and medially (but this is not specific for gastric impaction).( | + | *On [[Colic Diagnosis - Rectal Examination|'''rectal examination''']], the spleen may be displaced caudally and medially (but this is not specific for gastric impaction).<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> |
| − | *'''Endoscopy''' would be indicated in a chronic case( | + | *'''Endoscopy''' would be indicated in a chronic case<ref name="Bliks">Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref> and may show a full stomach after a fast of 18-24hrs.<ref name="Sanchez">Sanchez, L.C (2010) 'Diseases Of The Stomach' in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) '''Equine Internal Medicine''' (Third Edition), Saunders, Chapter 15.</ref> However it is not diagnostic for impaction as it is difficult to assess gastric distension by endoscopy.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> |
| − | *In a small horse or pony, a lateral '''radiograph''' of the cranial abdomen may show the diaphragm displaced cranially | + | *In a small horse or pony, a lateral '''radiograph''' of the cranial abdomen may show the diaphragm displaced cranially |
| − | *[[Colic Diagnosis - Abdominal Ultrasound|'''Ultrasonography''']] may reveal a markedly enlarged gastric echo extending over six or more intercostal spaces on the left side of the abdomen. A marked increase in the thickness of the wall of the stomach may also be imaged. ( | + | *[[Colic Diagnosis - Abdominal Ultrasound|'''Ultrasonography''']] may reveal a markedly enlarged gastric echo extending over six or more intercostal spaces on the left side of the abdomen. A marked increase in the thickness of the wall of the stomach may also be imaged.<ref name="Edwards">Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) ''Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery'', International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.</ref> |
'''However, if the horse suffers from acute severe colic, a diagnosis is often made at surgery'''. | '''However, if the horse suffers from acute severe colic, a diagnosis is often made at surgery'''. | ||
==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
| − | If gastric impaction is suspected, the horse should be | + | If gastric impaction is suspected, the horse should be transported with a '''nasogastric tube''' in place to a clinic with surgical facilities.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> [[Colic, Medical Treatment|'''Medical treatment''']] might include gastric lavage with water<ref name="Bliks">Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref> to remove as much impacted ingesta as possible, which may take several attempts. 100-200ml of an 8% solution of '''dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DSS)''' may help to hydrate the dessicated material. IV fluid therapy and analgesia should be commenced, although IV fluids are unlikely to resolve the impaction.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> Owing to the risk of gastric rupture, gastric motility stimulants should be avoided if the extent of the impaction is undetermined.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> At surgery the following should be performed: |
| − | *Infusion of balanced polyionic fluids such as saline( | + | *In dorsal recumbency, the impacted stomach can be felt extending back midway between the xiphisternum and the umbilicus, so it is easily accessed via a '''midline celiotomy'''.<ref name="Bliks">Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref> |
| + | *Infusion of balanced polyionic fluids such as saline<ref name="Bliks">Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref> either directly into the impaction through the gastric wall (adjacent to the greater curvature) or via a nasogastric tube | ||
*Massage of the stomach to reduce the impaction and aid movement of fluid into the ingesta | *Massage of the stomach to reduce the impaction and aid movement of fluid into the ingesta | ||
| − | *Impactions diagnosed at surgery may benefit from bethanechol | + | *Impactions diagnosed at surgery may benefit from '''bethanechol''' to stimulate gastric motility.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> |
| − | *The | + | *The stomach should be lavaged by nasogastric tube post-operatively and the horse starved for 48-72 hours. |
| − | *Gastroscopy is indicated to confirm resolution of the impaction and to identify any underlying causes in stomach.( | + | *'''Gastroscopy''' is indicated to confirm resolution of the impaction and to identify any underlying causes in the stomach.<ref name="Mair">Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) '''Manual of Equine Gastroenterology''', ''WB Saunders''.</ref> |
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | '''Gastrotomy''' has been attempted to remove impacted stomach contents but this has largely been unsuccessful<ref>Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) ''Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery'', International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.</ref> and carries major risk including poor gastric motility and recurrence of the impaction.<ref>Edwards, G.B (1997) 'Diseases of the Equine Stomach'. In: ''Proceedings of the 5th Congress of Equine Med Surg'', 98-101.</ref> | ||
| + | ==Prognosis== | ||
| + | Infusion followed by postoperative gastric lavage by stomach tube is usually successful.<ref name="Bliks">Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, ''American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP)'', reproduced at www.ivis.org.</ref> Chronic cases carry a poorer prognosis. Untreated, gastric impaction may lead to [[Gastric Dilation and Rupture - Horse|'''gastric rupture''']] which is fatal. | ||
| + | ==Prevention== | ||
| + | *Regular dental care | ||
| + | *Ensure sugar beet nuts are adequately soaked prior to feeding | ||
| + | *Secure storage of roughage and hard feeds | ||
| + | *Ensure free access to water at all times | ||
| + | *Good pasture management to prevent ragwort poisoning | ||
| − | + | {{Learning | |
| − | + | |literature search = [http://www.cabdirect.org/search.html?q=%28title%3A%28gastric%29+OR+title%3A%28stomach%29%29+AND+title%3A%28impaction%29+AND+od%3A%28horses%29 Gastric impaction in horses publications] | |
| − | + | }} | |
==References== | ==References== | ||
| − | + | ||
<references/> | <references/> | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | {{review}} | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{OpenPages}} | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[Category:Expert_Review]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Surgical_Colic_in_the_Horse]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Medical_Colic_in_the_Horse]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Intestine - Mechanical Obstruction]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Colic - Gastric Causes]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Impaction - Horse]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Stomach Diseases - Horse]] | ||
Latest revision as of 16:00, 6 July 2012
Also known as: Colic — Stomach Impaction — Stomach Simple Obstruction — Stomach Mechanical Obstruction
Introduction
Gastric impaction is rare in the horse.[1] It can occur spontaneously as a primary condition but is often secondary to other disturbances in the intestinal tract of the stomach such as ulceration or fibrosis at the pylorus.[2] The condition typically causes mild to moderate colic that does not resolve with routine medical treatment.[3]
See also: Colic, Gastric Causes
Aetiology
The specific cause of the impaction is not always apparent[4] but the obstruction typically consists of excessive dry, coarse ingesta such as straw bedding or poor quality forage.[4] It may also be composed of foreign bodies, ingested materials that form a mass (such as persimmon seeds or mesquite beans[5][6][7]) or feeds that tend to swell after ingestion. Gastric impaction may be the result of a gastric atony or defective secretion.[8]
Predisposing factors
- Ingestion of certain feedstuffs including sugar beet pulp, bran, straw, wheat and barley. Beet pulp and bran can become dessicated within the stomach and may not become rehydrated by water or gastric secretions.[2]
- Dental disorders - roughage may be only partially masticated.[2]
- Feeding a horse that has signs of colic - there may be poor gastric emptying associated with generalised decreased gastrointestinal motility
- Rapid consumption of feedstuffs.[4]
- Inadequate water consumption.[4]
- Secondary gastric impaction has been related to ragwort poisoning[9]
Clinical signs
The colic associated with gastric impaction varies from mild and chronic to acute and severe.[3] Other signs reported include:
- Anorexia
- Lethargy
- Prolonged recumbency
- Dysphagia
- Dropping of feed
- Bruxism
- Salivation[8]
- Insidious weight loss (if chronic)[8]
- Spontaneous reflux with gastric contents visible at the nares (in severe cases)[4]
In mild cases where signs resolve spontaneously or with analgesics, owners my continue to feed the horse, which only serves to worsen the impaction.[2]
Diagnosis
- Gastric impaction is suspected if a nasogastric tube cannot be passed or if poorly macerated or digested feed material is recovered from the tube when the horse has been starved for several hours. With gastric distension, the gastoroesophageal junction can become distorted making it difficult to pass the tube.[2]
- On rectal examination, the spleen may be displaced caudally and medially (but this is not specific for gastric impaction).[2]
- Endoscopy would be indicated in a chronic case[3] and may show a full stomach after a fast of 18-24hrs.[4] However it is not diagnostic for impaction as it is difficult to assess gastric distension by endoscopy.[2]
- In a small horse or pony, a lateral radiograph of the cranial abdomen may show the diaphragm displaced cranially
- Ultrasonography may reveal a markedly enlarged gastric echo extending over six or more intercostal spaces on the left side of the abdomen. A marked increase in the thickness of the wall of the stomach may also be imaged.[8]
However, if the horse suffers from acute severe colic, a diagnosis is often made at surgery.
Treatment
If gastric impaction is suspected, the horse should be transported with a nasogastric tube in place to a clinic with surgical facilities.[2] Medical treatment might include gastric lavage with water[3] to remove as much impacted ingesta as possible, which may take several attempts. 100-200ml of an 8% solution of dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DSS) may help to hydrate the dessicated material. IV fluid therapy and analgesia should be commenced, although IV fluids are unlikely to resolve the impaction.[2] Owing to the risk of gastric rupture, gastric motility stimulants should be avoided if the extent of the impaction is undetermined.[2] At surgery the following should be performed:
- In dorsal recumbency, the impacted stomach can be felt extending back midway between the xiphisternum and the umbilicus, so it is easily accessed via a midline celiotomy.[3]
- Infusion of balanced polyionic fluids such as saline[3] either directly into the impaction through the gastric wall (adjacent to the greater curvature) or via a nasogastric tube
- Massage of the stomach to reduce the impaction and aid movement of fluid into the ingesta
- Impactions diagnosed at surgery may benefit from bethanechol to stimulate gastric motility.[2]
- The stomach should be lavaged by nasogastric tube post-operatively and the horse starved for 48-72 hours.
- Gastroscopy is indicated to confirm resolution of the impaction and to identify any underlying causes in the stomach.[2]
Gastrotomy has been attempted to remove impacted stomach contents but this has largely been unsuccessful[10] and carries major risk including poor gastric motility and recurrence of the impaction.[11]
Prognosis
Infusion followed by postoperative gastric lavage by stomach tube is usually successful.[3] Chronic cases carry a poorer prognosis. Untreated, gastric impaction may lead to gastric rupture which is fatal.
Prevention
- Regular dental care
- Ensure sugar beet nuts are adequately soaked prior to feeding
- Secure storage of roughage and hard feeds
- Ensure free access to water at all times
- Good pasture management to prevent ragwort poisoning
| Gastric Impaction - Horse Learning Resources | |
|---|---|
 Search for recent publications via CAB Abstract (CABI log in required) |
Gastric impaction in horses publications |
References
- ↑ Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery, International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 Mair, T.S, Divers, T.J, Ducharme, N.G (2002) Manual of Equine Gastroenterology, WB Saunders.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP), reproduced at www.ivis.org.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Sanchez, L.C (2010) 'Diseases Of The Stomach' in Reed, S.M, Bayly, W.M. and Sellon, D.C (2010) Equine Internal Medicine (Third Edition), Saunders, Chapter 15.
- ↑ Kellam, L.L, Johnson, P.J, Kramer, J, Keegan, K.G (2000) Gastric impaction and obstruction of the small intestine associated with persimmon phytobezoar in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 216:1279-1281. In: Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP), reproduced at www.ivis.org.
- ↑ Cummings, C.A, Copedge, K.J, Confer, A.W (1997) Equine gastric impaction, ulceration, and perforation due to persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) ingestion. J Vet Diagn Invest, 9:311-313. In: Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP), reproduced at www.ivis.org.
- ↑ Honnas, C.M, Schumacher, J (1985) Primary gastric impaction in a pony. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 187:501-502. In: Blikslager, A.T (2005) Treatment of Gastrointestinal Obstruction - Stomach Impaction, Ileal Impaction and Caecal Impaction, American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP), reproduced at www.ivis.org.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery, International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.
- ↑ Milne, E.M, Pogson, D.M, Doxey, D.L (1990) Secondary gastric impaction associated with ragwort poisoning in three ponies. Vet Rec, 126(20):502-4.
- ↑ Edwards, G.B (2003) 'Gastric Pathology' in Chuit, P, Kuffer, A, Montavon, S (2003) Congress on Equine Medicine and Surgery, International Veterinary Information Service (www.ivis.org), Ithaca, New York, USA.
- ↑ Edwards, G.B (1997) 'Diseases of the Equine Stomach'. In: Proceedings of the 5th Congress of Equine Med Surg, 98-101.
 |
This article has been peer reviewed but is awaiting expert review. If you would like to help with this, please see more information about expert reviewing. |
Error in widget FBRecommend: unable to write file /var/www/wikivet.net/extensions/Widgets/compiled_templates/wrt6742e57ed13d31_00302469 Error in widget google+: unable to write file /var/www/wikivet.net/extensions/Widgets/compiled_templates/wrt6742e57ee7f814_20553896 Error in widget TwitterTweet: unable to write file /var/www/wikivet.net/extensions/Widgets/compiled_templates/wrt6742e57ef243d0_57660962
|
| WikiVet® Introduction - Help WikiVet - Report a Problem |