Difference between revisions of "Thyroid Gland - Anatomy & Physiology"

Revision as of 13:01, 13 December 2010

©RVC 2008

Embryological Origin

The thyroid gland is a downgrowth from the pharyngeal endoderm of the developing tongue.

Anatomy

The thyroid gland consists of two lobes (dog, horse), one on each lateral side of the cranial trachea. In the pig the lobes are connected by an isthmus with a small, central pyramidal lobe as part of that structure. Cattle have a particularly wide isthmus.

Location

The thyroid gland is located adjacent to the cranial trachea. Close to the Recurrent Laryngeal nerve, carotid sheath and Sternohyoid and Sternothyroid muscles. The Parathyroid Glands are located dorsally to, or within the thyroid gland itself.

Supply

The thyroid gland is supplied by the Cranial Thyroid artery which is a branch of the common carotid artery. A subsidiary supply is provided by the Caudal Thyroid artery. The cranial and caudal thyroid arteries are united by substantial anastamoses along their caudal edge.

Venous drainage is provided by the Internal Jugular vein.

Lymph drains into the cranial Deep Cervical nodes.

Ultrastructure and Histology

Normal Thyroid Gland. ©RVC 2008

The gland consists of varying sized follicles.

These are a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells: Follicular Cells surrounding a central lumen filled with a protein rich colloid (thyrogloblin). The apical surface of the cell membranes is covered with numerous micovilli to increase surface area. The follicular cells are connected by tight junctions, and have a dense capillary network.

Within the connective tissue close to the follicles are C-Cells alternatively known as Parafollicular Cells. These secrete Calcitonin, a hormone which acts to lower plasma Ca2+ levels.

Histology

Thyroid Gland Low Power 1
^{©RVC 2008}
Thyroid Gland Low Power 2
^{©RVC 2008}
Thyroid Gland Medium Power
^{©RVC 2008}
Thyroid Gland High Power
^{©RVC 2008}
Normal Thyroid
^{Courtesy of A. Jefferies}
Thyroid Gland High Power with C-Cells labelled
^{©RVC 2008}

Thyroid Hormone Physiology

Follicular cells synthesize Thyroglobulin in their golgi apparatus. This is a glycoprotein consisting of 70 linked tyrosine molecules, 10% of which are iodinated, and is stored in the colloid.

The thyroglobulin is then split to form the two amino acid derivative hormones produced in the thyroid gland:

Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)

Thyroxine contains 4 iodine atoms, triiodothyronine contains 3. Creation of these two hormones is the only role of iodine in the body.

The majority (90%) of hormone produced by the follicular cells is T4. T4 can only be made in the thyroid gland. It can then be converted by other tissues into T3.

Iodine Uptake

Iodine circulates within the blood as Iodide (I-). It is actively transported into the follicular cells by an Na+/I- symport in the basal membrane. This pump concentrates iodine in the colloid at a level up to 250x greater than the plasma level. This process is known as Iodide Trapping. The pump is activated by Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) a hormone from the pituitary gland. Any excess iodide is excreted via the kidneys.

Secretion of Thyroid Hormones

Colloid uptake into the follicular cells takes place by endocytosis. The intracellular vesicles containing the colloid then fuse with lysosomes, where enzymes split the thyroglobulin into T3 and T4. The hormones diffuse across the basal plasma membrane into the interstitium (they are lipid soluble hormones).

Transport

Thyroid hormones are lipid soluble, thus need a transporting protein in order to travel in the blood.Half-life in the blood is 1 day for T3, 6 days for T4. 99% of thyroid hormones in circulation are bound. The primary transport protein for thyroid hormones is Thyroid Binding Globulin (TBG). Synthesized in the liver, this protein binds 70-80% of the circulating thyroid hormones.

The remainder are carried by Thyroxine-binding prealbumin or albumin.

Degradation

Only free T3 and free T4 can enter cells to exert their actions. T4 is deiodinated to T3 in many cells of the body, particularly the liver and kidneys.

The thyroid secretes 90% T4, with 50% of this being deiodinated to T3. The remainder is converted to Reverse T3 (rT3). This is an inactive form of T3, and so creation of it is a regulatory mechanism. More rT3 is created when the body needs to reduce the action of T3 and T4.

The hormones are further deiodinated to diiodothyronine and monoiodothyronine in the liver and kidneys. Iodine is recycled or excreted in the urine.

Regulation

The Hypothalamus releases Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH) which stimulates the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary gland) to release Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH). This water soluble hormone travels in the blood to activate the thyroid gland by 5 actions:

Increased endocytosis and proteolysis of thyroglobulin from colloid
Increased activity of the Na+/I- Symport
Increased iodination of tyrosine
Increased size and secretory activity of thyroid follicular cells
Increased number of follicular cells

Schematic Diagram of the Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Thyroid Axis

Thyroid Hormone Actions

T3 and T4 have effects on all body systems and at all stages of life:

Development - Thyroid hormones are vital during the fetal period and the first few months after birth. T3 and T4 are the hormones for metamorphosis in frogs.
Growth - enhances amino acid uptake by tissues and enzymatic systems involved in protein syntheis, promotes bone growth
Metabolic Actions
- Carbohydrate metabolism - stimulates glucose uptake, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis
- Fat metabolism - Mobilises lipids from adipose stores. Accelerates oxidation of lipids to produce energy (occurs within mitochondria). Increases size and number of mitochondria.
- Increase Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) - in all tissues except brain, spleen, gonads. Results in increased heat production, increased oxygen consumption.
- Decrease body weight - Increased BMR results in increased utilisation of energy substrates
Cardiovascular actions - increases Cardiac output, heart rate and contractility.
Respiratory system - indirectly affected through increased BMR causing increased demand for oxygen and increased excretion of carbon dioxide.
Nervous system - thyroid hormones are required for myelination of neurons during the development of this system. They also enhance the sympathetic nervous system (by increasing epinephrine receptors).
Reproductive System - reduced levels of thyroid hormone causes irregular cycling, decreased libido.
Alimentary System - Thyroid hormone increases appetite and feed intake, increases secretion of pancreatic enzymes and increases motility.

Problems associated with the Thyroid Gland

Test yourself with the Thyroid Gland Flashcards

Thyroid Gland Flashcards

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{OpenPagesTop}}
+[[Image:Thyroid Gland Low Power.jpg|right|thumb|300px|©RVC 2008]]
-==Introduction==
-The thyroid gland lies in the neck, in front of the upper part of the trachea.  Two types of hormones are produced, which are the iodine containing hormones; '''tri-iodothyronine'''(T3) and '''thyroxine''' (T4). Thyroid hormones regulate the basal metabolic rate and are important in the regulation of growth of tissues, particularly nervous tissue. Release stimulated by TSH from the pituitary. The second type of hormone produced from the thyroid gland is '''[[calcitonin]]''', which regulates blood calcium levels along with parathyroid hormone and acts to reduce blood calcium by inhibiting its removal from bone.
 == Embryological Origin ==
-The thyroid gland is a downgrowth from the pharyngeal endoderm of the developing [[Tongue - Anatomy & Physiology|tongue]]. The calcitonin producing cells are different and are derived from the fourth branchial pouch.
+The thyroid gland is a downgrowth from the pharyngeal endoderm of the developing tongue.
 ==Anatomy==
 The thyroid gland consists of two lobes (dog, horse), one on each lateral side of the cranial [[Trachea - Anatomy & Physiology|trachea]]. In the pig the lobes are connected by an ''isthmus'' with a small, central ''pyramidal lobe'' as part of that structure. Cattle have a particularly wide isthmus.
 ===Location===
-The thyroid gland is located adjacent to the cranial [[Trachea - Anatomy & Physiology|trachea]]. Close to the ''recurrent laryngeal nerve'', carotid sheath and sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles. The [[Parathyroid Glands - Anatomy & Physiology|'''Parathyroid Glands''']] are located dorsally to, or within the thyroid gland itself.
+The thyroid gland is located adjacent to the cranial trachea. Close to the ''Recurrent Laryngeal nerve'', carotid sheath and Sternohyoid and Sternothyroid muscles. The [[Parathyroid Glands - Anatomy & Physiology|'''Parathyroid Glands''']] are located dorsally to, or within the thyroid gland itself.
 ===Supply===
-The thyroid  gland is supplied by the '''cranial thyroid artery''' which is a branch of the common carotid artery. A subsidiary supply is provided by the '''caudal thyroid artery'''. The cranial and caudal thyroid arteries are united by substantial anastamoses along their caudal edge. Venous drainage is provided by the internal jugular vein and [[Lymph - Anatomy & Physiology|lymph]] drains into the cranial deep cervical nodes.
+The thyroid  gland is supplied by the '''Cranial Thyroid artery''' which is a branch of the common carotid artery. A subsidiary supply is provided by the '''Caudal Thyroid artery'''. The cranial and caudal thyroid arteries are united by substantial anastamoses along their caudal edge.
+Venous drainage is provided by the Internal Jugular vein.
+[[Lymph - Anatomy & Physiology|Lymph]] drains into the cranial Deep Cervical nodes.
 ===Ultrastructure and Histology===
-The gland consists of varying sized follicles, which are bounded by a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells ('''follicular cells'''} and a basement membrane, surrounding a central lumen filled with a homogenous protein rich colloid (thyrogloblin). The apical surface of the cell membranes is covered with numerous micovilli to increase surface area. The follicular cells are connected by tight junctions, and have a dense capillary network. The colloid is a store of thyroid hormones prior to secretion.  The thyroid gland is the only endocrine gland to store its hormone in large quantities. In the active gland colloid is diminished and epithelial cells are tall and columnar.
+[[Image:Thyroid Gland Labelled.jpg|right|thumb|300px|'''Normal Thyroid Gland. ©RVC 2008]]
+The gland consists of varying sized follicles.
+These are a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells: '''Follicular Cells''' surrounding a central lumen filled with a protein rich colloid (thyrogloblin). The apical surface of the cell membranes is covered with numerous micovilli to increase surface area. The follicular cells are connected by tight junctions, and have a dense capillary network.
+Within the connective tissue close to the follicles are '''C-Cells''' alternatively known as '''Parafollicular Cells'''. These secrete ''Calcitonin'', a hormone which acts to lower plasma Ca2+ levels.
-Within the connective tissue close to the follicles are '''C-cells''' alternatively known as '''parafollicular cells'''. They are found in clusters in the interfollicular space and are also known as '''clear''' cells as their cytoplasm doesn't stain with H and E. They secrete ''[[calcitonin]]'', a hormone which acts to lower plasma Ca2+ levels.
+====Histology====
 <center><gallery>
@@ Line 29: / Line 46: @@
 </gallery></center>
+==Thyroid Hormone Physiology==
+Follicular cells synthesize '''Thyroglobulin''' in their golgi apparatus. This is a glycoprotein consisting of 70 linked tyrosine molecules, 10% of which are ''iodinated'', and is stored in the colloid.
-==Thyroid Hormone Physiology==
+The thyroglobulin is then split  to form the two amino acid derivative [[Hormones - Anatomy & Physiology|hormones]] produced in the thyroid gland:
-Follicular cells synthesize '''thyroglobulin''' in their golgi apparatus. This is a glycoprotein consisting of 70 linked tyrosine molecules, 10% of which are ''iodinated'', and is stored in the colloid.
+*Triiodothyronine (T3)
+*Thyroxine (T4)
-The thyroglobulin is then split  to form the two amino acid derivative [[Hormones - Anatomy & Physiology|hormones]] produced in the thyroid gland which are '''triiodothyronine (T3)''' and '''thyroxine (T4)'''. Thyroxine contains 4 iodine atoms, triiodothyronine contains 3. Creation of these two [[Hormones - Anatomy & Physiology|hormones]] is the only role of iodine in the body.
+Thyroxine contains 4 iodine atoms, triiodothyronine contains 3. Creation of these two [[Hormones - Anatomy & Physiology|hormones]] is the only role of iodine in the body.
 The majority (90%) of hormone produced by the follicular cells is T4. T4 can only be made in the thyroid gland. It can then be converted by other tissues into T3.
 ===Iodine Uptake===
-Iodine circulates within the blood as iodide (I<sup>-</sup>). It is actively transported into the follicular cells by an Na+/I<sup>-</sup> symport in the basal membrane. This pump concentrates iodine in the colloid at a level up to 250x greater than the plasma level. This process is known as ''iodide trapping.'' The pump is activated by '''thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)''' a hormone from the [[Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology|pituitary gland]].
+Iodine circulates within the blood as Iodide (I-). It is actively transported into the follicular cells by an Na+/I- symport in the basal membrane. This pump concentrates iodine in the colloid at a level up to 250x greater than the plasma level. This process is known as ''Iodide Trapping.'' The pump is activated by Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) a hormone from the [[Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology|pituitary gland]].
 Any excess iodide is excreted via the [[Urinary System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology#Upper Urinary Tract|kidneys]].
@@ Line 46: / Line 66: @@
 ===Transport===
-Thyroid hormones are lipid soluble, thus need a transporting protein in order to travel in the blood. Half-life in the blood is 1 day for T3, 6 days for T4. 99% of thyroid hormones in circulation are bound.
+Thyroid hormones are lipid soluble, thus need a transporting protein in order to travel in the blood.Half-life in the blood is 1 day for T3, 6 days for T4.
+% of thyroid hormones in circulation are bound.
+The primary transport protein for thyroid hormones is '''Thyroid Binding Globulin''' (TBG). Synthesized in the [[Liver - Anatomy & Physiology|liver]], this protein binds 70-80% of the circulating thyroid hormones.
-The primary transport protein for thyroid hormones is '''thyroid binding globulin''' (TBG). Synthesized in the [[Liver - Anatomy & Physiology|liver]], this protein binds 70-80% of the circulating thyroid hormones.
+The remainder are carried by '''Thyroxine-binding prealbumin''' or '''albumin'''.
-The remainder are carried by '''thyroxine-binding prealbumin''' or '''albumin'''.
 ===Degradation===
 Only free T3 and free T4 can enter cells to exert their actions. T4 is deiodinated to T3 in many cells of the body, particularly the liver and kidneys.
-The thyroid secretes 90% T4, with 50% of this being deiodinated to T3. The remainder is converted to '''reverse T3 (rT3)'''. This is an inactive form of T3, and so creation of it is a regulatory mechanism. More rT3 is created when the body needs to reduce the action of T3 and T4.
+The thyroid secretes 90% T4, with 50% of this being deiodinated to T3. The remainder is converted to Reverse T3 (rT3). This is an inactive form of T3, and so creation of it is a regulatory mechanism. More rT3 is created when the body needs to reduce the action of T3 and T4.
 The hormones are further deiodinated to diiodothyronine and monoiodothyronine in the liver and kidneys. Iodine is recycled or excreted in the urine.
 ===Regulation===
-[[Image:HypothalamicPituitaryThyroidAxis.jpg|thumb|240px|center|'''Schematic Diagram of the Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Thyroid Axis]]
+The Hypothalamus releases '''Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone''' (TRH) which stimulates the adenohypophysis (anterior [[Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology|pituitary gland]]) to release '''Thyroid Stimulating Hormone''' (TSH). This water soluble hormone travels in the blood to activate the thyroid gland by 5 actions:
-The [[Hypothalamus - Anatomy & Physiology|hypothalamus]] releases '''thyrotropin releasing hormone''' (TRH) which stimulates the adenohypophysis (anterior [[Pituitary Gland - Anatomy & Physiology|pituitary gland]]) to release '''thyroid stimulating hormone''' (TSH). This water soluble hormone travels in the blood to activate the thyroid gland by 5 actions:
 #Increased endocytosis and proteolysis of thyroglobulin from colloid
-#Increased activity of the Na<sup>+</sup>/I<sup>-</sup> symport
+#Increased activity of the Na+/I- Symport
 #Increased iodination of tyrosine
 #Increased size and secretory activity of thyroid follicular cells
 #Increased number of follicular cells
+[[Image:HypothalamicPituitaryThyroidAxis.jpg|thumb|240px|center|'''Schematic Diagram of the Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Thyroid Axis]]
 ===Thyroid Hormone Actions===
-T3 and T4 have effects on all body systems and at all stages of life. These include: :'''Development''' where thyroid hormones are vital during the fetal period and the first few months after birth. T3 and T4 are the hormones for metamorphosis in frogs.
-:Thyroid hormones also promote '''growth''' as they enhance amino acid uptake by tissues and enzymatic systems involved in protein synthesis thus promoting bone growth.
-:They also help with metabolic actions such as '''carbohydrate metabolism''', as thyroid hormones stimulate glucose uptake, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis.
-:In '''fat metabolism''' they mobilise lipids from adipose stores and accelerate oxidation of lipids to produce energy (occurs within mitochondria), as well as increasing the size and number of mitochondria.
-:Thyroid hormones also '''increase basal metabolic rate''' (BMR) in all tissues except brain, spleen and gonads. The results in increased heat production, increased oxygen consumption. This increased metabolic rate also results in increased utilisation of energy substrates causing weight loss.
-:Some of thyroid hormones [[Cardiorespiratory System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology#Cardiovascular System|'''cardiovascular actions''']] are to increase cardiac output, heart rate and contractility. They affect the [[Cardiorespiratory System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology#Upper Respiratory Tract|'''respiratory system''']] indirectly through increased BMR causing increased demand for oxygen and increased excretion of carbon dioxide.
-:In the [[Nervous and Special Senses - Anatomy & Physiology#Nervous System|'''nervous system''']] thyroid hormones are required for myelination of [[PNS Structure - Anatomy & Physiology#Neurons|neurons]] during the development. They also enhance the sympathetic nervous system (by increasing epinephrine receptors).
-:[[Reproductive System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|'''Reproductive system''']] is affected by  reduced levels of thyroid hormone causing irregular cycling and decreased libido.
-:Finally, in the [[Alimentary System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|'''alimentary system''']], thyroid hormone increases appetite and feed intake, increases secretion of [[Pancreas - Anatomy & Physiology|pancreatic]] enzymes and increases motility.
-===Influence of External Factors===
-'''Euthyroid sick syndrome''': concurrent disease such as starvation, sepsis, trauma or stress can cause a depression in basal thyroid levels as a normal response, to minimise the catabolic effects of thyroid hormones.
-This occurs in many species and may lead to false diagnoses of [[hypothyroidism]] or a missed diagnosis of [[hyperthyroidism]].
-<u>'''In horses'''</u>, many factors influence the level of T3 and T4:
-'''In foals''': thyroid hormone concentrations are up to 14 times higher than in horses over the age of 2.
-During normal feeding, T3 and T4 levels increase within two hours of feeding. Undernutrition results in an increase in T4 but T3 levels are unchanged. Excess protein and energy result in a decreased T4 and an increased T3.
-'''In adult horses''': undernutrition results in a decrease in both T3 and T4. Phenylbutazone is also known to decrease T4 levels.
+T3 and T4 have effects on all body systems and at all stages of life:
-Thyroid hormone levels increase with age, and are higher during pregnancy and times of low temperature.
+*'''Development''' - Thyroid hormones are vital during the fetal period and the first few months after birth. T3 and T4 are the hormones for metamorphosis in frogs.
+*'''Growth''' - enhances amino acid uptake by tissues and enzymatic systems involved in protein syntheis, promotes bone growth
+*'''Metabolic Actions'''
+**'''Carbohydrate metabolism''' - stimulates glucose uptake, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis
+**'''Fat metabolism''' - Mobilises lipids from adipose stores. Accelerates oxidation of lipids to produce energy (occurs within mitochondria). Increases size and number of mitochondria.
+**'''Increase Basal Metabolic Rate''' (BMR) - in all tissues except brain, spleen, gonads. Results in increased heat production, increased oxygen consumption.
+**'''Decrease body weight''' - Increased BMR results in increased utilisation of energy substrates
+*[[Cardiorespiratory System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology#Cardiovascular System|'''Cardiovascular actions''']] - increases Cardiac output, heart rate and contractility.
+*[[Cardiorespiratory System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology#Upper Respiratory Tract|'''Respiratory system''']] - indirectly affected through increased BMR causing increased demand for oxygen and increased excretion of carbon dioxide.
+*[[Nervous and Special Senses - Anatomy & Physiology#Nervous System|'''Nervous system''']] - thyroid hormones are required for myelination of [[PNS Structure - Anatomy & Physiology#Neurons|neurons]] during the development of this system. They also enhance the sympathetic nervous system (by increasing epinephrine receptors).
+*[[Reproductive System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|'''Reproductive System''']] - reduced levels of thyroid hormone causes irregular cycling, decreased libido.
+*[[Alimentary System Overview - Anatomy & Physiology|'''Alimentary System''']] - Thyroid hormone increases appetite and feed intake, increases secretion of [[Pancreas - Anatomy & Physiology|pancreatic]] enzymes and increases motility.
 ==Problems associated with the Thyroid Gland==
-Problems with the thyroid gland include enlargement, or [[Goitre|Goitre]] and also the effects of increased level of hormones in [[Hyperthyroidism|Hyperthyroidism]] or decreased levels of hormones in [[Hypothyroidism|Hypothyroidism]].
-{{Template:Learning
+*[[Thyroid Gland - Pathology#Goitre|Goitre]]
-|flashcards = [[Thyroid_Gland_Flash_Cards_- Anatomy & Physiology|Thyroid Gland]]<br>[[Equine Internal Medicine Q&A 21]]
+*[[Thyroid Gland - Pathology#Hyperthyroidism|Hyperthyroidism]]
-|powerpoints = [[Endocrine Histology resource|Histology of the Endocrine system]]
+*[[Thyroid Gland - Pathology#Hypothyroidism|Hypothyroidism]]
-|OVAM = [http://www.onlineveterinaryanatomy.net/content/feline-thyroid-gland-histology Feline Thyroid Gland Histology]
-|Vetstream = [https://www.vetstream.com/canis/Content/Factsheets/FactSheet020.asp Hypothyroidism]
-}}
+==Test yourself with the Thyroid Gland Flashcards==
+[[Thyroid_Gland_Flash_Cards_- Anatomy & Physiology|Thyroid Gland Flashcards]]
-{{review}}
-==Webinars==
-<rss max="10" highlight="none">https://www.thewebinarvet.com/endocrinology/webinars/feed</rss>
 [[Category:Endocrine System - Anatomy & Physiology]]
-[[Category:A&P Done]]